Act: Post conditions

As with escape, little has been written regarding the post conditions of theft from the person and robbery. However, findings from research into other crime types highlight that there are later stages of import for the offender in obtaining their goal. In their analysis of vehicle crimes, Michael et al.

(2001) identified several stages that followed the theft. These were the examination of property stolen, the safe caching of property for later retrieval, the discarding of unwanted property, the conversion of property into cash or other goods and then finally the consumption of the rewards from the theft. Each of these stages is shaped by wider situational factors such as the offenders’

awareness of the availability of suitable cache sites and the availability of networks to convert stolen goods into money or drugs.

After the theft offenders may face retaliation from their victims, particularly where these were other criminals and/or were people known to them. Methods for minimising resistance included adopting a particularly fierce and intimidating persona and using excessive violence during the event to after-the-event tactics such as being cautious not to brag about the event, avoiding the scene of the robbery and maintaining hyper-vigilance.

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5.3 Summary

This chapter has used script and CCO frameworks to organise existing research findings about theft from the person and robbery of personal property. This has helped to identify different sets of methods that offenders use to commit these crimes and to highlight the differences between them.

It also aids the understanding of the reasons behind those differences. Applying the frameworks has helped to identify and collate available research evidence relating to the key scenes in theft from the person commission. This has included the identification of the sub-goals which must be

accomplished to consider a scene ‘complete’. These scenes and goals are summarised in Table 5.1.

The table shows that some scenes are always necessary to successfully complete a theft from the person (i.e. goal formation, target selection, approach, transfer and escape). The performance of other scenes is dependent on the specific script track taken (preparation, search for target, engagement, manage resistance, convert goods, manage retaliation).

Importantly, the frameworks have encouraged consideration of the interactions between different actors in the scripts. Wikström (2009) noted that intended actions can be subject to interferences, including human and inanimate ones. The script framework has shown how experienced actors are able to anticipate these interferences and drawing on scripted alternatives to avoid, manage or respond to interferences. The literature also demonstrates how offenders incorporate experience into script revisions, including lessons for unsuccessful attempts (Jacobs, 2012).

The reviewed research lends strong support to the applicability of situational crime theories. They have demonstrated that offenders display a decision making calculus, they discriminate between targets, anticipate risks to achieving their goals and apply strategies to minimise these risks including the instrumental (not indiscriminate) use of violence. Use of the CCO framework has shown how the proximal causes within the crime situation, not only determine whether or not a crime will occur but also continue to shape the nature of the offence as it unfolds. All of the CCO elements operate globally across all script scenes, but there are certain scenes where particular CCO dimensions have extra relevance. For example, the nature of target enclosure for transfer, resources (weapons) for engagement with the victim. Crucially, the review of literature has demonstrated the importance of understanding the nature of criminal motivation, rather than taking it as given, understanding how different goals, experience, emotions and morals shape offenders’ perceptions of the crime situation, and in turn, shape whether and how they will act upon crime opportunities. Criminal motivation is not simply a case of a decision to offender or not, criminal motivation affects the type of offences that is committed

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Findings about some scenes are more abundant about some scenes than others. However paucity of findings is not the same as proving that a scene or act never happens, some acts may be considered as plausible even though they have not been explicitly discussed in the literature, but such

propositions should serve as pointers for future research.

While script frameworks have been useful, it cannot be denied that the division of theft from the person and robbery of personal property into discrete acts and scenes does at times feel artificial.

While the research lends support to the existence of scripted procedural knowledge, in reality this operates more flexibly than it is possible to present in written form, particularly when the

interaction of different actors’ scripts are considered.

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Table 5-1 Acts, Scenes and Sub-Goals in Theft from the Person Scripts

Act/Precondition Scene Sub-goals for scene completion

Readiness^% Goal formation^% Predisposed offender is readied to offend with lack of skills to avoid crime.

Anticipation of risk, effort and rewards Preparation≠ Preparation/≠ As above plus

Offender is/perceives is resourced

Target Selection% Search for target# Offender situated in area with a likely supply of targets%

May include accessing conducive wider environment Potential target recognised

Target Selection% Recognition of and decision to target an attractive and vulnerable person%

Transfer of Property%

Approach% Offender is co-present with victim%

Engagement# Victim misunderstands the situation#

Offender and victim have common understanding of the situation#

Offender gains compliance from the victim%

Search for property#

Locate property on victim Transfer% Any target enclosures breached#

Prevented/Managed victim resistance%

Permanently deprive victim of property%

Manage resistance#

Maintain victim compliance#

Escape Escape% Leave scene with property%

Post Conditions Convert goods# Convert goods into consumables#

Manage retaliation#

Minimise the risk of retaliation post robbery#

% Necessary condition - Script dependent on this stage

# Track dependent - Script tracks are available that do not include this scene

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Chapter 6 Understanding the Limitations of Police MO