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CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.3 ANDRAGOGY: THE THEORY OF ADULT EDUCATION

2.3.1 Adults, Adulthood and Adult Learners

Different scholars agree that adults are generally different from children, and this is further illustrated in educational studies where pedagogy is defined as the science and art of teaching children to learn. Andragogy is the science and art of helping adults to learn (Knowles & Associates, 1990; Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2012). An adult is defined as a mature, grown- up or fully grown or developed person (The Free Dictionary, 2015). However, it is a fact that not all grown-up or fully developed persons are mature. Sometimes, in communities we come across grown-up people, who are irresponsible and show no signs of maturity at all. There are also children as young as 12 sometimes left as heads of households. The phenomenon of child-headed households (CHHs) is no longer new, because of pandemics like the HIV/ AIDS. This disease kills many parents leaving orphans and vulnerable children to play the role of adults at a very tender age. Although the concept of adult seems difficult to define, the legal age of adulthood in South Africa starts at age 18 (National Planning Commission, 2011). In the previous section on ecological systems, the study referred to children growing up without functional families due to other social problems. The phenomenon of single parents where children are brought up with only one parent and children growing up without role-models has increasingly become a societal norm. It is therefore important to define the two key concepts of ‘adult’ and ‘adulthood’ for this study.

Scholars in adult education concur that adult and adulthood are concepts with many interpretations. However they all agree on two distinct characteristics: age and social constructs

(Fasokun et al, 2005; Tennant, 2006). Furthermore, these two constructs also have many variables. By implication, they are inconclusive because they are not universally agreed upon as criteria for defining adults from one context, or country to the other. In the view of this researcher:

• Adults are not children;

• Adults are defined according to age; and

• Adulthood is a socially constructed phenomenon.

For these reasons many explorations of adulthood are made. Tennant (2006) and Fasokun, et al. (2005) broaden the scope of adulthood essentially to include age, biological, social, historical, psychological, legal and political parameters. This study is premised on adult offenders, including youth-against-the-law. Youth refers to childhood, adolescence, infancy, a minor and someone in formative or early years of life. And yet, that is still inconclusive because some cultures in Africa and the Middle East, children at the age of 13 are considered adults. In some societies or countries like the US, India, China and South Africa, legally a person becomes an adult at the age of 18 years. In Indonesia and Japan, an adult is 20 years old (Fasokun, et al. 2005). It is therefore not enough only to say an adult is not a child, because as a determining factor, age is not an ideal description. Age in most contexts is determined legally to distinguish between a youth and an adult, and clearly this is not universal. However, the authors caution that since it is not written anywhere that a certain age is fit for an adult, chronological age alone is not a reliable criterion by which to define an adult. For these reasons, it is critical to explain and understand the concept of adulthood and youth in this context.

The African concept of adulthood is defined in terms of the roles that a person plays. In adulthood, the concept refers to a parent, a worker, an uncle, an aunt, a cousin, an older brother or sister. Society assigns duties and responsibilities to the adult that may be commensurate with his or her growing maturity (Braimoh & Biao, 1988, cited in Fasokun, et al., 2005). Another criterion is that transmission of oral history and tradition presumably can be told by an adult person, who has accumulated some experience over a number of years. Usually people who tell traditional folk-tales and proverbs are older people in the households and communities – adults. But again, what about children in child-headed households, with no adults to transmit the culture? The criterion alone therefore is not also reliable to determine an adult in that situation (Fasokun, et al., 2005).

Political and legal determinants are closely linked. A person is regarded an adult at a certain age that is considered legal in a particular country. In South Africa, an adult is any individual of the age of 18; they can vote, obtain a driving licence, marry and make their own decisions about their lives. They are not minors anymore; they can be charged and arrested, smoke and drink, and enter into contractual obligations. They can gamble, watch pornography and engage in prostitution and sexual activity.

Biological determinants define physical characteristics where children at a certain developmental stage of their lives reach puberty or adolescence. Their sexual characteristics change – males develop deep voices, grow facial hair and experience ejaculation, and girls start to menstruate, and grow breasts and hair on their private parts. Lately due to changes in eating habits and nutrition, children grow faster than they did some decades ago. Some children young as 10 years old can develop biological features of adults, and therefore physically be seen as grown adults. For this study, all offenders participating are considered adults. They were incarcerated and charged according to the South African laws. Even juveniles in the centres of excellence were considered as adults in this study because they were not with their parents or in family care. They committed crimes and they are paying for them – taking responsibility for their actions. Their consequences have forced them to be adults even if they are under the so-called legal age.

Another factor which is unique in the study of adult education is the concept of adult learners. In this study, students in adult education are called adult learners. However, conventionally, adult