This approach focuses on using the advisory service for the transfer of technologies that are generated at research stations. Since a variety of methods and media can be used for this purpose, “transfer of technology” describes a perspective, rather than a specific set of methods. The limitations of this “linear” and “top-down” perspective of advisory services have been widely recognized since the 1980s (e.g., Chambers and Ghildyal, 1984), which has led to the development of models in which the farmer is not just considered as a recipient of technologies generated in research stations.
2) Training and Visit (T&V)
The T&V approach was developed by the World Bank and, as mentioned in the introduction, promoted in approximately 50 countries until the mid-1990s. In terms of the framework presented here, T&V is not only a set of advisory methods (Box A), it also prescribes an organization and management approach (Box M) and a governance structure (Box G). T&V entailed a hierarchical organizational structure of several levels, a rigid bi-weekly schedule of visits to a defined fixed list of contact farmers (later modified to contact groups), regular interaction with subject-matter specialists (researchers), and a concentration on the most important crops (Anderson, Feder and Ganguly, 2005).
3) Participatory Approaches
Starting from the critique of the transfer of technology model, a range of approaches that are classified as participatory have been developed since the late 1970s, which emphasize the active role of the farmers not only in advisory services, but also in the research process. Participatory approaches are guided by the “Farmer-First”
philosophy (Chambers, 1983). Participatory research approaches include, for example, the “On-Farm Research with Farming Systems Perspective” of CIMMYT (OFR/FSR).
farmers, but a wider set of stakeholders in the development of new technologies (innovative linkage model). Advisory approaches that are classified as participatory often include farmer experimentation. Figure A1 illustrates the methods used for a community-based participatory advisory service approach (PEA) developed in Zimbabwe, which emphasizes social mobilization, facilitation and learning (Hagmann et al., 1999). A comprehensive evaluation of a participatory group extension approach in Egypt is provided by Hannover and El Wafa (2003). The experience with participatory approaches shows that it is not only important to foster the self-organization of various interest groups for their coordination at community level, but also to support their representation in different development fora for linking with service providers and political structures at municipal and provincial levels (local organizational development- LOD). This implies that the micro-meso linkages are important, accompanied by intervention at the macro-level, when required (Ficarelli, 2005).
4) Farmer Field Schools (FFS)
Farmer Field School (FFS) programs were developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and first introduced in East Asia in the late 1980s as a way of diffusing knowledge-intensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices for rice. FFS have since been adapted to other content areas and have spread rapidly across Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Nelson et al., 2001). FFS is a group advisory process based on non-formal adult education methods, focusing on field observations, season long research studies and hands on activities. The underlying comprehensive adult education concept is in fact a distinguishing feature of the FFS approach. FFSs aim at empowering farmers to be their own technical experts on major aspects of localized farming systems.
It has been described as a paradigm shift in agricultural advisory services: the training program utilizes participatory methods “to help farmers develop their analytical skills, critical thinking, and creativity, and help them learn to make better decisions” (Kenmore, 2002).
5) ICT-based Models
While ICT-based models of advisory services, such as online advice, have become common in industrialized countries, these technologies also have a considerable potential for developing countries. An interesting approach is the eChoupal model in India, which has been developed by the Indian Tobacco Company (ITC). An eChoupal are village internet kiosk run by a local farmer, which helps villagers to access free of charge information on farm practices, weather, and prices of inputs, services and outputs.
This model was launched in 2000 and now comprises 4,000 eChoupals serving 2.5 million farmers in six states (Umali-Deininger, 2005). Another example of using the internet in India is the fee-based nLogue model of Ulagapitchampatti. Farmers can show crops affected by diseases to a web camera and receive advice on treatment (Bhatnagar, 2005).
6) Other Models
There is a variety of other models of providing advisory services, such as the school approach (e.g., demonstration plots in schools and discussions held during parents’ days) and the strategic extension campaign approach (which concentrates on priority problems identified by farmers). Model farms constitute another approach, which has been widely used to promote new technologies, especially in Asia. One example where model farms were used is the introduction of the wheat-maize double cropping system on Hebei Plain in China.16 In Thailand, organic farming has been promoted through model farms that could be visited not only by farmers, but also by consumers and media representatives (Fischer, 2004). Some specific advisory service approaches have been developed to address problems of natural resource management, such as the catchment approach (designed to address problems in watersheds), or participatory land use planning approaches (which include, e.g., the use of three-dimensional landscape models).
Figure A1. Community-based Participatory Extension Approach: Process and Feedback Linkages
SOCIAL
MOBILIZATION
ACTION PLANNING Technology
Development Loop Technology
Development Loop
IMPLEMENTATION/
EXPERIMENTATION
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Ready for promotion Joint elaboration of fact sheets
Promote technology as option
Further research needed On-farm
experiments
On-station trial
Source: AGRITEX, 1998
ANNEX 3. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN ECONOMIC IMPACT