Approaches to development and conservation

Yet projects which address both development and conservation issues have become common-place in developing countries. Since the mid 1980s the approach of ‘Integrated Conservation Development Projects’ were applied. These projects aimed to foster low- impact forms of economic activity in parks, such as small-scale ecotourism, with the intention of reducing pressure on the natural resources. More often though, such schemes were ineffective for a number of reasons. The number of people affected was tiny in comparison with the scale of welfare needs of the local population. Successful projects acted like a magnet for drawing in would-be beneficiaries from a wider area. The beneficiaries were generally so poor that they treated any income generated as additional to their normal livelihood activities rather than as an alternative. Also the projects were too narrowly situated in villages and ignored the wider societal and economic pressures which were often the cause of protected areas exploitation (Brandon & Wells, 1992; Well et al. 1999 cited in Cochrane, 2007; van Schaik & Rijksen, 2002). Developing from these experiences, the trend for conservation and development projects then shifted to the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA).

SLA is a tool which provides a theoretical framework to understand the livelihoods of people at a particular site (Chambers et al. cited in Mendoza, 2006). It recognises the need to secure, and develop, people’s livelihoods capacities through a diversity of strategies, one of which may be tourism. A livelihoods approach assumes that when people’s livelihoods

are secure, they will be less likely to resort to practices which are detrimental to the integrity of the environment (Thomlinson and Getz 1996 cited in Scheyvens, 2002). Hence both the quality of life of people and the conservation of resources are promoted (Chamber and Conway 1992 cited in Scheyvens, 2002).

Although SLA is currently the fashionable approach for assessing conservation and development projects, there are a number of inadequacies in the approach which make it problematic for application in this study. Some of the shortcomings of SLA given the context of the study area are outlined below.

SLA is a people-centred approach and is designed to be participatory. Yet there are a number of difficulties in arranging a genuine level of local participation with those living near protected areas in developing countries. For example, the villagers affected often have low education levels and weak representation within local politics (Cochrane, 2007). Furthermore, Asian (including Malaysian) social and bureaucratic arrangements are characterised by traditional structures of clientism, patronage, hierarchical linkages and respect for authority (Cochrane, 2007, p. 296). These traditional structures tend to be particularly strong in rural areas where protected areas (and most ecotourism) are located. For example an account of development projects in Nepal found that villagers’ acceptance of hierarchical structures and personal relations undermined the efforts of Western development planners, whose initiatives were based on cultural values which stressed individuality and equality (Carroll 1992 cited in Cochrane, 2007). Similarly, a study of water systems in southern India found that water management had always been based on political as well as natural principles, and attempts to graft modern participatory ideas onto a strongly hierarchical society resulted in patterns of power play within the communities affected which were as complex as the indigenous systems (Mosse 1995 cited in Cochrane, 2007). These traditional structures also remain strong in Sukau. Such traditional and cultural structures are not incorporated into SLA frameworks (Cahn, 2002). Hence using an SLA framework to assess the effectiveness of tourism as an alternative livelihood source in Sukau would not sufficiently acknowledge these important aspects of the community.

SLA attempts to represent a complex system in a simple and logical way. However in doing so, the relative importance of some factors and the relationships between the factors

are lost (Cahn, 2002). In many parts of Asia (including Malaysia), leaders are highly powerful and the influence of individuals can be strong. Corruption is also accepted as an endemic part of the socio-political scene (Cameron 1996 cited in Cochrane, 2007, p. 298). The transparent and accountable governance which would foster careful management of natural resources is largely missing, with private interests generally prevailing over the public good and poor control over market forces (Cochrane, 2007). SLA undervalues the presence of these factors and the influential relationships between them. These factors conflict with Western ideals, which are ingrained within the concept of SLA.

SLA is designed to work across sectors (Cahn, 2002). Tourism involves a number of government departments including those responsible for agriculture, education, health, water, forests, land use and infrastructural planning and coastal management, as well as tourism (Cochrane, 2007). Yet most government institutions and organisations are operated and funded on a sector basis. In Asia (including Malaysia), discrete sectoral responsibilities and jealousies over power sharing between different ministries can be especially acute. Hall 2000 (cited in Cochrane, 2007, p. 297) noted that throughout Asia, “appropriate and effective institutional arrangements for managing the relationship between tourism and the environment are lacking”. This indicates that the cross-sectoral approach of SLA could struggle within this context.

Different models of tourism prevail in different countries, and tend to reflect local values and local institutions. If tourism is to support conservation and livelihoods, efforts to manage it must be made through frameworks which are firmly contextualised within the social and political environment where it takes place (Cochrane, 2007). The social and political environment of Sukau is one where projects tend to be ‘owned’ by a particular governmental department or NGO. It is likely that corruption is accepted, and traditional structures such as hierarchy and respect for authority are strong. For these reasons it was decided that SLA was not a suitable approach for this study.