Case Studies

Yin (1993) has noted that case study research can be applied in many environments, such as those of service, education and law enforcement agencies. Case studies can support methodologies in achieving the aim and objectives of the research. A case study can help identify the cause and effect of a given research issue.

74

Case studies are a common scientific tool that can be used to trial, explain and criticise CI techniques. In order to gain a better understanding of waste minimisation, on-site case studies are used to develop principles that can help businesses (Seth and Gupta, 2005; Hines and Rich, 1997; Brunt, 2000).

Szendel and Tighe (1994) have supported the use of case studies to study the Kaizen approach, which involves observing the situation, defining the changes and then making the changes happen. The case study approach can demonstrate the efficiency of the concept of a framework for achieving future changes (Hines and Rich, 1997).

A research methodology based on case studies can also be used. Case studies are the best way to obtain a high degree of validity with practitioners, and also fit well with the objectives of refinement theory. They are also particularly suitable for the development of new theories and ideas (Lasa et al., 2008). They have been particularly useful in the development of operations management theory, having supported the creation of many new concepts (Lasa et al., 2008).

The case study used in this research applies a selection of the methodologies detailed in the chapter to achieve its aims and objectives. The focus of this research is on business improvement without the assistance of business professionals. The researcher therefore decided not to use participant observation, instead engaging in non-participant observation to retain distance and avoid interacting with the processes being observed. The purpose of these observations was to discern whether management support and commitment is vital to the success of any projects (McQuater et al., 2000; Arvelo, 1995; Brice, 1989; Mulhaney et al. 2004; Lawrence, 1983; Oakland, 2000).

A common theme from the available literature on methodologies is the importance of accurate data collection.

3.8 Data Collection

It was decided to develop some questions to determine what was actually happening in an SME environment. The questionnaire was based on what was

75

found in the literature review and also provided useful knowledge that could be used to develop the concept framework. The questionnaire posed questions on areas such as knowledge of improvement projects, barriers to improvement and CI knowledge. It was decided to contact 800 SMEs in the Midlands, UK local to the researcher in the event that the businesses would like to be involved in case study work. Also, Thompsons Directories advised the researcher that the Midlands, UK was highly populated with manufacturing SMEs. Fifty replied and their responses were later analysed.

The literature relies on a small number of case studies rather than taking a broader quantitative approach. This research questionnaire was designed to obtain more information than was obtained by the studies in the literature review.

This study required a well-designed questionnaire, and the researcher therefore referred to Oppenheim (1992) when developing the questions. Postal questionnaires generally receive a good response when seeking information (Gertsen, 2001).

To obtaining further detailed feedback in the form of interviews is considered in the next section.

3.9 Interviews

Conducting interviews structured around a specific project can produce a better understanding of the processes involved. Data collected from other methodologies can be discussed and a structured approach achieved (Arbulu et al., 2003). Information obtained from personal interviews with directors and managers can provide valuable knowledge that can help with decisions on how to improve (Garcia-Lorenzo et al,, 2000), and interviews with key cross- functional staff can show up areas of inefficiency (Jones et al., 1997).

To support interviews the process of open-ended interviews was also considered.

76

3.9.1 Open-ended Interviews

The aim of interviews of this type is to identify more general potential issues that could prevent the framework from minimising waste within the interviewees’ organisations. It gave the opportunity for people involved in the case study to communicate what they saw as its strengths and weaknesses, including any flaws in the case study, and their personal views (Oduoza et al., 2008). Discussions conducted with interviewees allowed for more detailed information to be considered for this study, and also for the discussion and consideration of their ideas for improvement.

The researcher used specific techniques, such as cause and effect, histograms and flowcharts to analyse the information obtained from the open-ended interviews, and used any specific relevant information that could help to improve the framework. This method provided not only specific detail, but also an overall view of the businesses and the potential effects that the framework could have on them. Focused interviews were also considered to specifically focus on certain aspects of the research.

3.9.2 Focused Interviews

The objective of the focused interviews was to obtain more information about a specific part of the research and process model and to explore several topics further. These topics were: (a) business pressures on the organisations involved; (b) waste minimisation issues; (c) barriers to wanting to improve; (d) gaps in knowledge of CI techniques identified in the literature review; (e) knowledge transfer from the available academic literature; (f) management commitment to waste minimisation; (g) specific training in CI techniques, and (h) experience of failed improvement projects.

The researcher conducted focused interviews with top managers, supervisors, engineers, shop-floor workers and administrators. These were of a structured type.

3.9.3 Structured Interviews

The researcher conducted structured interviews to understand the reasons for SMEs’ low uptake of CI techniques. Structured interviews and surveys were

77

used to obtain quantitative data about the businesses involved addressing administration and manufacturing processes that could be used to monitor improvements. The specific areas within these businesses that could be used to measure and improve waste minimisation were: (a) lost time due to incorrect customer specifications at the contract-review stage; (b) insufficient communication; (c) lost production time due to incorrect drawings; (d) the cost of incorrect bills for materials; (e) poor planning; (f) supplier issues; and (g) process maintenance downtime.

These interviews also reviewed the TPS’s seven identified areas of waste, which are: overproduction, waiting time, transport, inappropriate processing, unnecessary inventory, unnecessary motion and defects (Hines and Rich, 1997). The researcher analysed the information obtained from these interviews and, if relevant, included it in the framework.

The experts interviewed included researchers and delegates from international conferences. The industry practitioners interviewed included an operations manager, a sales manager, a design manager, a purchasing manager, a site manager, a production manager, engineers, operators and administration staff. Any observations made during the research had the potential to provide valuable information to ensure that the framework would work in a business environment.

3.10 Observations

SME operators invited the researcher to visit them and made him familiar with their operations, with the assurance of confidentiality for their businesses. The researcher made observations of all these businesses and used them for the further development of the concept framework. The researcher used the observations from these visits to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data involved process problems, administration problems, a lack of training, communication problems and a lack of management support. The quantitative data included business performance measures, current waste measures, quality statistics and process efficiencies.

78

One observation for each case was conducted at the start and end of the case study, and monthly observations were conducted over a period of 12 months.

The researcher then compared the interview findings with the academic literature and used relevant information to develop the process improvement concept framework further.

The researcher considered a soft systems approach to support the research, which is detailed in the next section.

3.11 Soft Systems

Checkland (1986) provides a systems thinking approach, a methodology which looks at the whole environment of a situation that requires improving, rather than focusing on a particular point. It is supported by KM, involving people and the transfer of knowledge, which will be key to the success of this research thesis. The world is a very complex system, but perhaps the most surprising thing about the mysterious world in which we live is that it is intelligible. Systems thinking makes conscious use of the particular concept of wholeness captured in the world ‘system’ to order our thoughts. ‘Systems practice’ then implies using the product of this thinking to initiate and guide the actions we take in the world.

A systems thinking, system practice approach was published 20 years ago, and there are relevant points that could still be used in the development of the framework in this research (Checkland, 1986). Soft systems methodology (SSM) has been successfully used by Checkland and has generated considerable academic debate. One of its strengths is claimed to be its practical usability in a wide range of situations by people without technical backgrounds, but the extent of use by non-academics has never been established. The reasons for not using SSM largely fall into three camps: lack of knowledge, difficulties within the organisation and perceived characteristics of the methodology. By far the most common benefit mentioned is that SSM provides structure. The authors provide evidence of the success of SSM; however, there

79

has always been some doubt that it could be easily be used by others (Mingers and Taylor, 1992).

An SSM approach incorporates as many different perspectives as possible and to tackle problems through enlargement and synthesis rather than by focus and analysis. It has also been argued that SSM does not provide adequate guidance for addressing the role of technology (Vidgen, 1997).

Lewis (1992) has reviewed SSM to look at the rich picture in the use of a soft systems approach. SSM is an approach for bringing about improvements in situations in which people play a major role and where the problem cannot be without distortion, formulated in terms of choosing between alternative means of achieving predefined objectives. Due to the fact that SSM is a methodology rather than a method, there is no standard form for its use. Lewis (1992) sometimes it is necessary to see the problem situation in a more structured way, but without commitment being made to any particular solution, or even a particular kind of solution. There are misunderstandings about the use of SSM, especially from people with limited knowledge.

3.12 Outputs

The methodologies being used in this section are well established, well proven and will support this thesis project. The methodologies will support the identification of CI techniques that are available from the literature review. Obtaining information about what is actually happening in industry is important. The questionnaire will provide this information. Case studies with interviews, open-ended interviews, focused interviews, structured questions, surveys and observations, backed by both a qualitative and quantitative approach, will support valuable information that can be used to develop and validate a framework that reduces barrier and actually works. The type of methodologies have been carefully researched and planned to help deliver the output. This data will be used to develop the framework defined later in this research project, as detailed in the case study.

80