Chapter introduction 109

This chapter describes Study 2 of the research program and the results of Study 2a in Australia. Study 2 examined the psychosocial variables which are associated with compliance with the SZSL in Australia and Malaysia. More specifically, the influence of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control (PBC), habit, and mindfulness on individuals’ intended and (self-reported) actual compliance was explored. This study also explored the role of habit and mindfulness in the intention- behaviour relationship, identified drivers’ critical beliefs, and explored the effect of situational factors, on drivers’ intention to comply with the SZSL. The focus of Study 2 is to address three of the research questions mentioned in Chapter 3: RQ 1: What are the psychosocial factors which influence drivers’ intended and actual compliance with the SZSL?

RQ 3: To what extent do habit and mindfulness influence drivers’ intended and actual compliance with the SZSL?

RQ 4: How do situational factors influence drivers’ intention to comply with the SZSL?

In order to explore these questions, the following six hypotheses were tested. H1 The standard TPB variables will significantly and positively predict intention to

comply and actual compliance with the SZSL in Australia and Malaysia, such that more favourable attitudes, subjective norms and PBC will predict an increased intention to comply, and higher levels of intention and PBC will predict compliance with the SZSL.

As previous TPB related research indicated that the standard TPB variables of attitude, subjective norm and PBC were significant predictors of intentions relating to a range of road safety-related behaviours, including compliance with the speed limit (Elliott & Armitage, 2003; Elliott, et al., 2007a; Warner, et al., 2009), it is

hypothesised that the standard TPB variables will significantly predict intentions with the SZSL in this study.

H2 Habit and mindfulness will contribute additional explanatory value, such that higher scores on mindfulness and habit of compliance will predict an increased intention to comply with the SZSL, over and above the standard TPB

constructs.

Previous studies examining compliance demonstrated that the TPB can be used as a frame of reference to predict drivers’ intention to comply with the speed limit as well as actual compliance. However, despite the success of the TPB in explaining

behaviour, 15% to 52% of the variance in intention and 33% to 68% of variance in compliance has remained unexplained (Elliott & Armitage, 2003; Elliott, et al., 2007a; Warner, et al., 2009). According to the literature reviewed in Chapter 3, evidence has highlighted the possibility that mindfulness and habit may influence intended and actual compliance with the SZSL (Demick, 2000; Ouellette & Wood, 1998). That is, drivers who have repeated exposure to a particular road may

experience the phenomenon of driving automatically, without awareness, or mindless driving (Charlton & Starkey, 2012). This hypothesis was also informed by the

findings from this program of research, namely focus group discussions (i.e., Study 1a and 1b). Findings from the qualitative studies indicated that drivers’ failure to comply with the SZSL could be attributed to mindless driving. One of the reasons for mindless driving was identified as an individual’s repeated exposure to a particular road which, in the long term, led to the development of a driving habit. However, habit was also one of the factors which facilitated drivers’ compliance with the SZSL. In particular, the familiarity of the route and unvarying setting may encourage the habit of compliance with the SZSL. Therefore, with the inclusion of habit and mindfulness, it is hypothesized that the extended TPB will explain more variance in intention to comply with the SZSL.

H3 Habit and mindfulness moderate the intention-behaviour relationship, such that greater habit and mindfulness will strengthen intention, thus leading to compliance behaviour.

Previous research has indicated that the construct of mindfulness includes a number of features that may facilitate a strong(er) link between intention and behaviour (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2007). These features include helping individuals to perform their intentions by strengthening the ability for self control, specifically, the ability to stay focused on the fulfilment of plans and control counter intentional thoughts that often prevent people from following through their intention (Orbell, 2003). In relation to habit, Chatzisarantis and Hagger (2007) argued that people without a habit need to initiate, plan and have a strong intention to perform the intended behaviour in comparison with those who have developed a habit. Thus, in relation to drivers’ compliance with the SZSL, it is posited that mindfulness and a habit of compliance with the SZSL may moderate the intention-behaviour

relationship.

Further hypotheses to be explored in Studies 2a and 2b were related to situational factors and were as follows:

H4 The presence of school children in school zones will be associated with greater intention to comply with the SZSL. Specifically, there will be a main effect relating to school children such that the presence of school children in the school zone area will be associated with higher intention to comply.

H5 The presence of other drivers speeding in school zones will be associated with lack of compliance with the SZSL. In particular, there will be a main of effect of other drivers’ speeding such that the presence of other drivers’ speeding in the school zone area will be associated with less intention to comply.

H6 There will be an interaction between school children and other drivers speeding in school zones, such that the absence of other drivers speeding together with the presence of school children will result in higher intention to comply than any other combination of these variables.

Empirical evidence reviewed in Chapter 3 indicated that other road users’ behaviour does impact upon an individual drivers’ speed choice (e.g., Aberg, 1999; Haglund & Åberg, 2000; Yinon & Levian, 1995). The review also identified the behaviour of vulnerable road users (pedestrian) may increase drivers’ compliance with the speed limit while the presence of other drivers violating traffic rules may pressure drivers to violate and not comply with the speed limit (Aberg, 1999; Haglund & Åberg, 2000; Yinon & Levian, 1995). These hypotheses were also informed by the findings from the focus group discussions (i.e., Study 1) which indicated that drivers’

behaviour in school zones may be influenced by these two factors.

The results of Study 2a (Australian study) are presented in the current chapter while those of Study 2b (Malaysian study) are reported in the next chapter, Chapter 7. Overall, this study offers a comprehensive theoretical-based investigation of drivers’ reported compliance with the SZSL with a view to providing new insights into driver behaviour and a greater understanding of the psychosocial factors that influence such behaviour.

6.2 Research design and methodology