XA general theme running throughout Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War. CNew York: Columbia University Press, 1959).
“Gerhard and lean Lenskl. Human Societies_An_
Introduction to Macro-Sociology. CNew York: McGraw-Hill,
1982), p. 47.
3D. Krech, et.al., Individual In Society. CNew York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), p. 521.
*Loc, clt. p. 85ff.
sSee the 1 ntroduct1ona1 remarks In Lenskl, Human Soc1ety. op. clt.
teFor a discussion on.the material product of
culture/social- structure/1ndividuaIs and roles In human
societies, see Gerhard and Jean Lenskl. Human.SocIties. op. cit. p . 46f f.
7For a discussion on role culture, see Gabriel
Almond -and Sidney Verba. The Civic Culture. CPrinceton. New Jersey: Princeton university Press. 1963), p. 27ff.
^See David Krech. et.al., Individual__in_Soc1et y.
op. cit. pp. 310-11: also Kenneth Gergan, et.al., Soc i a 1 Psycho logy. CNew York: Random House, 1974), chapters 10 and 17; A.P. Hare, Small Group Research. (Glencoe,
Illinois: The Free Press. 1962), pp. 8-9.
“^Lenskl, Human Soc i e t 1 e s . op. cit. p. 50; see
also, for the rationa1isation of the concept, James Harvey Roberson. The_Mind in the Making. CLondon: Watts & Co. , 1934)’, p. 28ff.
x °M i cha e 1 Ba nton . Pc.l_e_s_L__ An Introduction _t p_the Study of Social Relationships. CLondon: laverstock Publications, 1965), pp. 39-40ff.
11 The question may be asked here, whether or not Industrial societies are fragile. Tney may'be, but obviously a s industrial societies, by tne nature of- “ coBiplexlt ies ’ inherent with industrialisation. Ci.e*.
Interdependencies, reliances, implied trust), their expanded expectations entail a degree of network complexity which would move it out of a “fragile” considerat1 on.
12See Banton, Ro1es. op. cit. p. 53. 1T5Loc . cit. p. 60 .
1X4Hare, Small Group Research. op. ,cit. p. 8; also see Guy Aimard, Durkheim et la Science EconorntpieL'apport de sa s o c i oIo g1s a la theorie economicue moderne. C Pa r is: Presses Universitaires de France, 1962).
1A definitive work on roles is found in T. Parsons and E. Shi Is, ed.. Toward_a_General Theory of Action.
CCambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1964), pp. 91-98, 207-18. 231.
x^For the herein used typology of need hierarchies, the reference is made to the classical work of A.H. Maslow in Motivation and Personality. CNew York: Haroer and Row, 1954).
i7These appear throughout the literature as a
classic scale relating to the work of Maslow. See A.H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation." Psychological Rev i ew. 50C19^3):370-96. These are frequently termed “Maslow’s Needs." But this is not the only representation of needs. Another notable scale is that found in Moris
134
G1n s b urg, Essays In Sociology, and Social Psychology. CLondon: William Heneaann, Ltd, 1956), p. 130ff. Basic needs and moral ideals broken down into Cl) the needs for body, food, drink, etc.; <2) the needs of the mind, to
understand, to construct, to appreciate, to be home in the
world; C3) the social needs, to respond, and to seek re sponse.
ifispor a related discussion, see Alfred Kuhn, The Study of Society__ A Multidisc i pi 1 nary App roa ch . CLondon:
Taverstock Publications, 1963). •
i,5*Loc. cit.
20 Se e section 3 of Krech, Ina i v 1 dua 1 in Society . o p cit.
2idsmes Olds, “Physiological Mechanisms." in
Marshall R. Jones, ed., Ne b r a _sk a Svm go slum o f .Mot 1 v at ion . CLincoln: University of Nebraska, 1956), pp. 74-77. It is interesting to note that a mode, relating to a need, is a response selector and, as such, the motive would function as a want, i.e., something that is only secondarily related to the life support of the organism. A need, if considered as a construct, that being a convenient factor or hypothetical concept which stands for a force, the psychochemical nature of which is unknown in the brain region, would be construed as a force which organises perception, appreciation,
intellection conation, and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an. existing unsatisfying
situation. Everett Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change. (Homeswood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1962), p. 104ff.
22C. Kluckhohn, “Values and Value Orientations." in Talcott Parsons and Edward Shils, ed., Toward_a General Theory of Action. CCambridge: Harvard Uni'ver’sity Press,
1954),- pp. 395-403. -
2~’'Loc. cit. p. 425: and for an interesting and good analysis, albeit somewhat detailed, see Dorothy Lee, “Are Basic Needs Ultimate?*' in Journa 1_of Abnormal a n d _S oc i a 1 Psychology. XL I I IC1948):391-95.
2 Ha ge n , On the Theory of Social Change. op. cit.
p. 115.
2e'For a discussion see, Peter and Brigette Beyer, I nd i v i duum 4- Co . CStuttoart : Deutsch Verlaae, 1972), p. 38ff.
2e'This process, with regard to specific developed ways of thinking and treating life problems, termed “ integrity, “ is treated briefly by C.D. Darlington, The_ Evolution of Man in Societ y. CLondon: George Allen and Unwin, 1969), p. 628.
2ZFor a discussion, see Peter M. Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life. CLondon: .John Wiley and Sons, 1964), p. 289ff.
23See Arthur L. Stinchombe, Social Structures_and Organizations. CChicago: Rand McNally, 1965).
^Elites tend traditionally to hold standardised values and orientations rather than particularistic. See for a related military discussion, Morris Tanowitz, The Professional Soldier. (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1960), pp. 89-97.
.••.•jjopor the study of exchange, a wide range of
behaviour is pertinent including goa1-orientation, conduct,
and any sort of material or non-rat ional action. Weber said "the action of persons who, regardless of possible cost to themselves, act to put into practice their convictions of
what seems to be required by duty, honour, the pursuit of beauty, a religious call, personal loyalty, or the
importance of some 'cause’ no matter in what it consists'* is
acceptable substance of integrated action. The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation. CNew York! Oxford University Press, 1947), p. 116.
sipor functionings causal to individual attitude change, see Leon Hann, Social Psychology. CLondon! John Wiley and Sons, 1969), pp. 126-27.
^Quoted of Wiener in Karl W. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government.. CNew York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 77. 'See original: Norbert Wiener, Cybernet ics. CCsmbridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1965).
-"-’Karl W . Deutsch, National ana Social
Commun icat ions. CCambriage, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1953), p. 96. CThe original quotation appeared in italics.) •’s'£,Karl W. Deutsch, "The Impact of Communications
upon International Relations Theory," in Abdul Said, ed., Theory of International_Re1at ions:___ The Crisis of Relevance. CEnglewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968), p. 75.
^-'Ja-me s E. Dougherty, et.al, , Contending Theories of International Relations. CNew York: Harper and Row, 1981), p. 285.
“k&,The general idea of Talcott Parsons in The Social System. CLondon: Taverstock Publications, 1952). .
37Barbara Ward, Nationalism and Ideology. CLondon: Hamish Hamilton, 1967). '~p. 48.
aeDa nkwa rt A . Ru s t o w, A World of Nations .
CWashington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1967), p. 47ff. a9Loc. cit. p. 47.
z‘° H u gh S e a t o n - W a t s o n , Nationalism and Communism . CLondon: Methuen, 1964), pp. 9-10.
1 Loc . cit. p . 107 .
^Exceptions retaining a degree of regional autonomy are Brittany in France, Wales and Scotland in Great Britain, Vizcaya, Alava, Navarra, and the Basque in Spain, etc. See Patricia Elton Mayo, The Roots of Identity Three National Movements CLondon: Allen Lane, 1974) which highlights the hook—up of Nation-State, i.e., a dominant entity although consitituent participants may not have been 100% homogenized into the universa1istic entity.
z*'3See Josef Chilebowczvk, On Small and Young Nations in Europe. CWroclaw: Polish Historical Library, No. 1, 1980), especially chapter one.
z‘ ** Ka r 1 Deutsch, Nat iona 1 i sm a nd Soc ial Commun i cat ions. op. cit. pp. 104-08.
z‘5Toai Bo 11 o mo re , Political Sociology. CLondon: Hutchinson, 1979), p. 112.
Zt&Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History. Volume eight. CLondon: Oxford, 1934-54), p. 536.
z'7 H. G. Wells, The Outline of History. C L o n d o n : 135
136 MacMillan, 1921), p. 260.
**eCarlton J . H. Hays, Essays of Nationalism . CLondon: MacMillan, 1926), p. 6.
■^Carlton J ■ H. Hays, The Historical Evolution of
Modern Nationalism. CLondon: R.R. Smith, 1931), p. 10. soBans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism. CLondon: MacMillan, 1944), p. 10.
&1Kar1 W, Deutsch, Nationalism and Social
Communlcations. op. cit. Chapter 2 onwards.
!3-An example of this phenomenon is Franc ien : The dialect of the lie de France, and to some extent, the
Champagne, set the national standards for both literacy and colloquial French, particularly after the influence of the Language d'Oc dialect had been reduced by relative economic decline and military defeat in the Southern regions of
France toward the end- of the thirteenth century.
“Deutsch, Nationalism and Socia 1"Communications .
op. cit. Quoting Leonard Bloomfield, Language. CNew York: Holt, 1933), p. 52; A line running from West to East through a map of France from approximately Bordeau to Lyon to
Grenoble indicates the demarcation between Langue d'Oc in the south and Langue d'Oil of the north. The second
demarcationa1 area from Lyon to Belfort Indicates the
eastern region of the Franco-Provencal. The core language Francien spoken in Paris within the region of d'Oil Coui) may be subdivided in the north by Picard, the northeast Wallon, the east Lorrain, south-east Burgundian, south Berrichon, southwest Portevin. west Angevin and to the north-west Norman. In the Langue docien the northwest
possesses the Limousin dialect, the north the Auvergnat, the eas-t the Proveneal, the southwest Barnais and in the west- the Gascon. Each area possesses its language centre and each is an element in the constellation known broadly as French. Each area may be viewed in terms of Identification by its linguistic uniquenesses, and its uniquenesses are incorporated in the conventional function of its use.
‘"•■^In effect, speech groups reflect the 'operations of the mind' . See Bernard Bosanquett, The Ph 11osoph 1ca1 Theory of the State. CLondon: Macmillan, 1930), p. 28ff.
-^Standard1sed French emitting frm Paris is the norm for language communicated other than orally and frequently employed iritra-dialectic group. Standard French is
■preserved by special techniques and institutions, e.g., established standards, grammar, dictionaries, schools, printing, and national radio.
=it:-por a good short history of the growth and
development of the English language, see Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution. CLondon: Pelican: 1975), chapter 4, “the Growth of Standard English," p. 237ff.
szFor the distribution of these specific elements of political geography in Europe Cespecially Britain), see Geoffrey Parker, The Countries of Community Europe. CLondon: Macmillan, 1979), p. 77.
Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communications. op. cit. pp. 18-19.
137
Soz1 aIdemokrat ic. Second editon. CVienna: Brands. 1924}.
p. 1357”
foopor a discussion of social imagery, see 13ff. For
a discussion of ambivalent images, see p. 13Qff. For a discussion on the internalisation of images, see p. 143ff.
All in Triaant Burrow, The Neurosis of Han, CLondon:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1949}.
6 1D e u t s c h , Nationalism and Social Communications-. op. cit. p. 20.
to:aSt. Augustine, The City of God. Book 19, chapter 21/24. In W.J. Oates, ed., Basic Wr i t i ngs of _.St ?__August tne . CNew York: Random House, 1948}., pp. 497—503; also Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communications. p. 20.
63Quincy Wright, A_Study of War- Volume II.
CChicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942}, p. 999. ^‘The major thought in Robert Theobald, Free Man, and Free Markets. CNew York: Clarkson, 1963}.
&=5As what is currently being done is the result of institutionalised schooling, a fact recognised early on. There are those who believe the governmental forms which paramaterise nations do much to distort socialisation, amongst them, Thomas H. Huxley: "Authorities, disciples, and schools are the curse of science, and do more to
interfere with the work of the natural socialisation process or ’scientific spirit’, than all its enemies," see Thomas H. Huxley letter-to Professor Weldon. 9 February 1893 in Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley. Volume II. CNew York: Appleton Co., 1902}, p. 336.
“See P.E. Mayo, The Roots of_J dent i t y. op. cit. *’por examples of this, see Solon T. Kimball,
"Cultural Influences Shaping the Role of the Child: Those First School Years," in The Nat iona1 Elementary School Pr i nc i pa 1. XLC1960}:18-32.
“'Chambers Dictionary, p. 1093-Re1igion.
^'^Loc . cit. p. 820-Mora 1 i t y . Compare, for example, stereotypes of Christianity in European nations, and Mohammedism in Arab nations.
zoAs, for example, the treatment of Sunday closing or no closing laws.
71Lo u i s Snyder, The Meaning of Nationalism. CWestport: Greenwood Press, 1954}, p. 24.
z :;z Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communications. op. cit. p. 105.
7S e e Talcott P a r s o n s , Soc let ies, Evo 1 u t ion and Comparafive Perspect ive s. CEnglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1966}; and Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man. CBoston: Beacon Press, 1961}.
7 ** Ralf Dahrendorf, Konflict und Freiheit . C M u n c h e n :
Piper, 1972}, chapter fourteen.
z~'Th i s is recognized by Linklater who notes that
states often assert their own interests above those of their nations. Regarding morality, he states that what is
important in the moral development of an international
society is the fact that states refrain from asserting that they have non-negotiable rights by virtue of their sheer existence, other than the fundamental right of being
138
recognized as an instrument for the promotion of a local common good, i.e., the good of their nations respectively. See Andrew Linklater, Men and Citizens In the Theory of
International Relations. CLondon: Macmillan, 1982), p. 195.
'7fcElle Kedc^ju* Nat Iona 11 sm . op. cit. p. 51. ^Loc. cit. p. 15.
VOA most obvious example is the French States'
insistence upon the 1mpermeabl1ity of the French language as seen through the Francophone movement of the Academie
Francois. See "Francoponle une Realite Endeveur," in Forces-Quebec. 79CAutomrae I987):87ff.
And hence the tendency to control through
domination by the state. This has led at least one author to fear the future, as a threat to human freedom. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society. CNew York: Knoph, 1967). The 'argument is that of a value-rational motive for action by the state as suggested by Max Weber. Wlrtschaft und Ge se11scha f t. CTubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1972), p. 167ff. This requires the employment of all possible considerations
for the achievement of the set ends of the state. It is very scientific. “Everything In human life which does not
lend itself to mathematical treatment must be excluded." CEllul, op. cit. p. 43). It Is a tendency to lead society away from the community CGesellschaft) toward the
association C Ge me i rrs c h a f t ) and presents a_confllct of - dichotomies — mass vs. personality, routine vs-, creative, conventions of the ordinary people vs. inner freedom,
instItutiona1 conventions vs. individuality, “the drudgery and boredom of everyday existence vs. the imaginative flight of the genius." See H.H.-Gert and C. Wright Mi’lis, From Max
Weber: ~ Essays in Sociology. CNew“York: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 53.
Kedourie Nationalism. op. cit. p. 63. eiW.S.F. Pickering, Durkhelm on Religion A Selection of Readings with Bibliography. CLondon: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975), p. 16.
e^The state, reasserting self internally “remains a particularistic community conscious of its separation from the world beyond.” Andrew Linklater, Men and_Citizens in the Theory of I nterna11ona1 Relations. op. cit. p. 184. And as such is conscious of and reasserts its distinct “national consciousness." For a study of the national consciousness, see Orest Ranum, National Consciousness, History, and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe.
CBaltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975). chapters one and two. See, also, chapter 6 of this paper.
Q3This is not an easy question to answer. Linklater says. “The state's first ambition is not to secure its one-side interests but to gain recognition of its
responsibi1ity for the enhancement of a particular common good.” Linklater, Men and Citizens. op. cit. p. 191.
■-‘Ticker‘no, Durkhelm on Religion. od. cit. p. 192 .
Bertrand De Jouvenel, Power,__the Natural History of its Growth. Translated by J.F. Huntington,,CLondon:
139
Hutchinson & Co., 1945), p. 149.
^'-'Phillippe C. Schmitter, “A Revised Theory of
Regional Integration,“ in Leon N. Lindberg and Stuart H. Scheingold, ed., Regional Integration:___ Theory and Research. CCambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 238.
&'~See spillover in “Regional Integration," in David Shills, ed,International Encyclopedia_of Social Sciences. Volume 7. CNew York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 523; David Mitrany, “The Functional Approach to World Organisations,"
in.A. Cosgrave and K. Twitchett, New Internatina1 Actors; The United Nations and the EEC. CLondon: Macmillan, 1970), p. 65-75; David Mitrany, “The Prospect of Integration:
Federal or Functional," in dourna1 of_Comroon Market Stud1es. 4C1965):119-49.
• ssLeonard Woelf, Principia Politics__A Study of Communal Psychology. CLondon: Hogarth Press, 1953), p. 155.
"Nicholas S. Tinashiff, Sociological Theory. CNew York: Random House, 1967), p. 65.
9°Loc. cit. p. 62.
91 See Ramsay Muir, National-Self Government. CLondon: Constable & Co., 1918).
^’M.P. Follett, The New State. CLondon: Longman, Green. & Co., 1918), pp. 20-27. -
93First noted by social-philosopher, William dames. It appears as if a degree of heterogeneity is necessary for a healthy and actively stimulating environment but the
critical point at which particularism supercedes
collectivism must not be overstepped. This may be the systole, diastole controversy and relates to the - psychological need of tension as stimulation when healthy, destructive when hostile. See C.G. dung, Psycho loglea 1
Types, or The Psychology of Individuation. Translated by H. Godwin Baynes. CLondon: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co., 1933), pp. 11,179,252,263, and text general and
Historical introduction.
*3k4!* Follett, The New State. op. cit. p. 33. •s-^p.T. LaPiere, Soc ial Change. CNew York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), pp. 291-92.
~&Follett, The New State. op. cit. p. 34. For example, Columbus’ effects on the Church Copernican doctrine.
^^“Ideal Systems in the Individual and Society,“ in G.K. Zollsch and W. Hirsh, Explana t ions__in Social Change. CBoston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), p, 34.
^^The best example in modern times would be Hitler or Mussolini.
"’'See Harold D. Las swell, The Analysis of Political Behavi our;__ An Empirical Approach. CLondon: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1948), p. 48.
100Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man The Socla 1 Bases of Man. CLondon: Heinemann, I960), p. 83.
101Loc. cit. p. 21.
i0:aLoc. cit. p. 21. The critical point between
140
quan5tifiable. For example, the language problems which
traditionally play havoc with Belgian governments do not appear to be evident in rau 11. i-1 i ngua 1 Switzerland.