Classroom observations

Classroom observation is “a process of gathering information by observing and watching the behavioural patterns of people in certain situations or at a research site, to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest” (Creswell, 2005, p. 211; Johnson & Christensen, 2008, p. 211). An example would be an investigation of the kind of activities and interaction patterns that exist inside the classroom. Carless (2004) stresses that in analysing the success of an innovation, it is crucial to learn how teachers carry out the innovative curriculum in the classrooms. Hence, in addition to investigating the EL teachers’ knowledge and understanding of the curriculum reform, their views of the curriculum support materials and their opinions towards the dissemination process of the curriculum reform, this study examines the implementation of the curriculum in actual classrooms with reference to the classroom activites conducted and teacher-

student interaction and discourse patterns that occur. This is in line with Martin’s (1999) point that, “interaction between teacher and pupils constitutes the fabric of the curriculum in the classroom; an investigation of classroom communication patterns is therefore fundamental to an understanding of how the curriculum is realised in the classroom” (p. 127).

“Unobtrusive observations” or non-participant classroom observations (Patton, 2002, p. 291) were employed in this study, where the researcher observes and records or takes notes, but does not take part in the observed activity. This was to ensure the least possible interference with normal activities and that what was being observed would be minimally affected. Classroom observation was adopted due to several factors. First, the dynamics of any classroom interaction discourse cannot be effectively captured without observation. Classroom observation is a “highly developed data collection approach typical of examining learning environments” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 176). Second, the interaction patterns to be observed are not set-up or pre-planned but occur naturally in the context of teaching and learning. Hence, classroom observation yields first- hand data (Dörnyei, 2007) as it provides the opportunity to record information and the description of behaviour as it occurs in a setting, naturally (McMillan, 2004). Recording actual behaviour is better than obtaining reports of preferences or intended behaviour because people do not always do what they say they do (Johnson & Christensen, 2008, p. 211). Third, one of the educational purposes of observation is that it can be used as an effective reflective tool for improvement of teaching practices (see explanation in 5.8.3).

The classroom observations were tape-recorded using a JVC Everio GZ-HM545 camcorder to document the actual classroom interaction between teachers and students. A video camera as the means of recording lessons enables the researcher to capture paralinguistic and non-linguistic features of talk (Smith & Higgins, 2006). Hence, the recordings were used to identify both the function and the patterns of teacher and pupil discourse in the classroom as well as the content of what was actually said and the manner in which it was spoken. In this sense, the recordings captured a reasonable proportion of the whole picture with a concern for the social and historical context of teacher and pupil utterances. Apart from that, video recordings can be repeated and examined many times (Richards & Lockhart, 1996) and therefore enable a close analysis of specific teacher behaviours to ensure consistency.

Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that the presence of the recording equipment may be disruptive, as it may affect the naturalness of what was being recorded, referred to by Labov (1994 as cited in Gordon 2012) as the ‘observer paradox’, particularly in rural settings where video cameras or recordings are not common. However, the problem can often be overcome (or at least reduced) by first explaining to the teachers the purpose of the study and by giving them the assurance that their identity will be kept anonymous and data from the observations will be kept confidential. Besides that, sitting at the back of the classroom lessens teachers’ anxiety of being recorded. Hence, once the teachings started, the intrusion of the video camera became less threatening than had initially been anticipated.

5.8.2.1 Field notes

One of the instruments used in classroom observation is field notes. Van Maanen (1988, as cited in Wolfinger, 2002) defines field notes as “shorthand reconstruction of events, observations and conversations that took place in the field” (p. 86). This means transcribed or written notes made at the research setting, derived from data collected during observations and interviews, describing what the observer sees, hears or does, or recording thoughts, ideas, feelings, speculations, questions and concerns based on the observations and interviews (McMillan, 2004). Making field notes was clearly likely to be important in the present study, as information from them would help to explain the recorded observations or interviews, as well as filling gaps in the analysis of other data.

The data collected from filed notes were intended to provide answers to whether the reforms in the curriculum were having any marked or noticeable impact on teachers’ classroom interaction patterns and influencing their pedagogical practices, as well as allowing me to see whether the teachers’ current pedagogy was consistent with the curriculum’s emphasis on developing learners’ communicative competence. Moreover, as discussed in the literature review, many studies on curriculum implementation have revealed a gap between what is theoretically intended and what is practically implemented. By observing what teachers did in the classrooms and how they taught it was hoped to establish whether such discrepancies also occurred in this study. In other words, the use of field notes help to provide answers to research questions three on how

teachers implement the curriculum specifically looking at the classroom activities and the teacher-student interaction patterns.

5.8.2.2 Systematic classroom observation schedule

A systematic classroom observation schedule was used to investigate how the curriculum was implemented in the classroom with reference to teachers’ classroom interactional patterns. Hence, the Systematic classroom observation (SCO) helps to answer research question three. SCO is a quantitative method used to measure the behaviours within the classroom environment, for instance teacher-student interaction patterns, from direct observations (Waxman, 2003). SCO usually specifies both the events and behaviours that are to be observed and how they are to be recorded. In a study that examines classroom interaction patterns, an SCO schedule consists of “a set of preselected and predetermined categories for describing certain verbal behaviours of teachers and students as they interact in the classroom” (Kumaravadivelu, 1999, p. 455; Mercer, 2010). SCO provides specific and easy identifiable behaviours that can easily be coded. On top of that it helps to discover the cause of any instructional problems and to study the processes of education in naturalistic settings (Chaudron, 2000).

SCO is based on interactive coding system that allows a researcher to code almost every observable phenomenon that happens during a lesson. There are two main methods of coding: 1) event sampling – a tally mark is entered against a category every time it occurs, and 2) time sampling – categories are reported at regular intervals of time. The final scores are obtained by adding up the tally marks for each category. This study adopted the event sampling procedure. It may be argued that SCO cannot tell the whole story of ‘classroom life’. There is a tendency to easily miss the insights that could be provided by the participants. To overcome this problem, data from the SCO were triangulated through the use of discourse analysis (detailed explanation see 4.8.1 in Chapter 4). As mentioned earlier this study also brings together various forms of data collection to ensure accuracy and reliability.

The systematic classroom observation schedule used here was adapted from the work of Sinclair and Coulthard (1992) and adopted from the framework used by Hardman et al. (2009). The schedule focused on teacher question–answer–feedback sequences, also known as initiation-response-feedback (IRF) structure, derived from the different types

of discourse moves made by teachers and pupils. The coding system generated data on the types of initiation moves made, such as ‘teacher informs’, ‘teacher directs’, ‘teacher repeats’, and ‘teacher questions’; the responses given and who gave them, such as an individual student, choral-few or the whole class, as well as the types of follow-up provided in response to an answer: whether it was affirmed, praised or elaborated upon. A comprehensive explanation of the model can be found in the previous chapter (see 4.8.1 in Chapter 4).