Clause Modifying Particles

This set of particles includes all modal operators, negative and realis particles, clause cohesion particles and also mood qualifiers. Particles are discussed with appropriate examples in 7.3.1. to 7.3.3.

3.5.2. Adjuncts

These are a small set of verbal predicate modifiers. They provide additional information about the action denoted by the verb, and in so doing can say something about the participants involved. These modifiers do not .however, affect the factivity mode or the

status of the clause.

Adjuncts always occur adjacent to the verb-complex and/or core operators and, as pointed out by Matthews (1981:136-141), adjuncts are neither core nor peripheral operators. Thus, like Oblique pronouns, adjuncts are included as outer-core elements.

As word-forms they are a hybrid set. Some are derived from circumstantial qualifiers, some from particles and formatives while others are independent lexemes.

Adjuncts include manja 'carefully', 'slowly', 'gently'; lorra 'properly, thoroughly'; marawaka 'quietly, silently'; warrikka 'quickly', kakarda(-kakarda) 'hurriedly, hastily'; waymuk 'for no reason, accidentally'; bulkkidj 'for a reason, deliberately'; munguy 'persistently, repeatedly’, 'with force'; ngardawabba-ngardawabba 'separately'; ngardawabba 'alone', 'single-handedly'. They are discussed and exemplified in 7.3.4. 3.6. Interjections

This is an open class of words. Because of the degree of multilingualism in Maningrida it is often difficult to assign a given interjection to a particular language. Facility with several

different languages lends a creative air to use of interjections, and there is certainly a common pool of expressions that can be included as members of this class of words. This situation provides a rich array of alternatives, such as the standard Nakkara forms ngawä 'yes' and korla 'no', (also used as a clause-modifying negative particle), as well as common abbreviations, extensions and accompanying gestures. For 'yes', awd (also 'good job!') and the borrowed terms yoh (where, following Kunwinjku orthography /h/ represents a glottal stop) and yuway. For 'no', the extended k o r l iused emphatically, and a nasal-glottal expression something like ngfi-Kng. Any of these forms may be accompanied by a turning down of the mouth with protruding bottom lip or the appropriate hand-sign.

Other interjections include ma or mah 'go on, do it, carry on'; dja or djußa 'shoo' (to dog); xvorro or werra 'poor thing!'; nja-nja 'sweet thing!'; mardaway 'can't be helped'; ye 'hey!'; ay a 'all right'; he-he (confirmation); hi-hi (enthusiastic confirmation); yakkay 'ouch'; yi or yi-ii (to attract someone's attention); djaddji 'come here' (usually to dog); akku 'o.k.' (?from Maung); a 'oh!'; marie 'indeed', 'well'; bobo 'goodbye'; nja 'here, take it'; ngaw 'who knows!'; bardak 'hold on!', 'wait!'; ngehkkZ 'look out!'.

C h a p te r 4

N O M IN A L M O R P H O L O G Y

4.1. In d e p e n d e n t P ro n o u n M o rp h o lo g y

In the sections following we look at independent personal pronoun forms in Nakkara and at the organisation o f pronom inal category oppositions. A ll m orphological processes involving pronom inal affixation make distinctions based on the categories o f person, num ber and gender discussed in 4.2. below. Bound pronominal forms are modeled on and probably diachronically derived from the independent pronouns. Therefore, prior to discussion o f the morphological processes associated with bound pronominals (see 4.2. to 4.6.3.), it w ill be necessary to point out som e o f the structural characteristics of independent pronouns. Details o f pronoun structure are given in 4.3. The functions of independent pronouns are summarised above in 3.3.4.1 to 3.3.4.3.

4.2. P ro n o m in a l C a te g o rie s: p e rso n , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r

The majority o f verbal and nominal inflections in Nakkara are pronominal. They denote a set o f oppositions based on particular person, number and gender categories. Nakkara does not have a standard person-number system, but one like that described by McKay (1975) for Rem barm ga and discussed in Dixon (1980:35 Iff) as a M inimal/Augmented system.

n u m b e r

This system is comprised o f threeAcategories: Minimal, Unit-Augmented and Augmented. It differs from standard singular-dual-plural systems because o f the presence of three separate first person inclusive categories, the first o f which (1/2 M inimal 'you and I’) cannot be included in a singular category because it involves m ore than one participant. The Minimal/Augmented system is detailed below following Table 4.2.

There are seventeen pronom inal form s in a Nakkara paradigm . Table 4.2. shows the independent Cardinal pronoun paradigm. Note that non-feminine gender is unmarked and therefore the "non-fem" label is usually omitted from paradigms as in 4.2.

MINIMAL UNIT-AUGMENTED AUGMENTED

1 ngarabba 1 nginayabba 1 ngibb£rrabba

fern ngangiyakabba

1/2 ngarrabba 1/2 ngunayabba 1/2 ngubbdrrabba fem nganguyakabba

2 njeyabba 2 nunayabba 2 nubbdrrabba

fem nanguyakabba

3 nakabba 3 banayabba 3 babbdnrabba

fern ngiyakabba fem bangiyakabba

TABLE 4.2. Nakkara Cardinal Pronoun Paradigm

The arrangement of Minimal (rather than Singular) distinctions includes firstly the two primary participants in the speech act, speaker T and addressee ’you’; additionally, a speaker plus addressee combination 'you and V is treated in the language as a Minimal unit, but is, clearly, non-singular, lastly, there are the Minimal non-participants, and these are distinguished for gender as feminine and non-feminine.

The set of distinctions comprising non-Minimal number forms has some similarities with the familiar dual and plural pronominal categories. However, inclusion of non-Minimal speaker plus addressee units would introduce a "trial" category, which confounds any attempt to successfully map a typical dual-plural opposition onto the forms.

The alternative to "dual plus trial" number categories is U nit-A ugm ented. This arrangement, as the name suggests, comprises pronominal units where members of the Minimal number category are augmented by one person.

A third number category, roughly corresponding to plural, is termed Augmented, accommodating pronominal units where Minimal form is augmented by more than one other person.

The four person categories of the Unit-Augmented number set and the third person Minimal have feminine as well as non-feminine pronoun forms. Gender distinctions do not extend to other forms in the paradigm.