2 What does parental divorce or marital separation mean for adolescents? A scoping
2.1.5 Collating, Summarizing and Reporting the Results 30
The final sample contained 3 Canadian and 50 American studies. Four of the studies used qualitative methods of inquiry, 43 used quantitative methods, and 6 used mixed methods designs. It should be noted that the sixth inclusion criteria, participants being adolescents at the time of the study, was overlooked in 5 cases. There were 2 studies where the sample’s ages ranged below age 10 by a maximum of 1 year (Dawson-McClure, Sandler, Wolchik, & Millsap, 2004; Johnston, 2003) and 3 studies where participants ranged above age 19 by a maximum of 4 years (Afifi & Schrodt, 2003; Ge, Natsuaki, & Conger, 2006; Reese-Weber & Kahn, 2005). These studies were included in the final sample despite the fact that the participants fell slightly outside of the age range of inclusion because the average age of the sample was within the adolescent age range, and the information was relevant to the review.
Table 1. Summary table of key features of the final literature sample.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
Afifi & Schrodt (2003), U.S.A.
"Feeling Caught" as a mediator of adolescents' and young adults' avoidance and satisfaction with their parents in divorced and non- divorced households
Quantitative: Survey data
Participants from divorced homes: less communication parental competence, more demand-withdrawal patterns, less closeness with parents, more avoidant and dissatisfied with relationships with parents, higher feelings of being caught between parents; avoidance higher in adolescents who still live with parents and are stuck in the situation.
Afifi & Afifi (2009), U.S.A.
Avoidance among adolescents in conversations about their parents' relationship: Applying the Theory of Motivated Information Management
Quantitative: Survey data/ observation
Adolescents do not perceive selves as avoiding discussing parents' relationship or divorce, but do so passively
Afifi & McManus (2010), U.S.A.
Divorce disclosures and adolescents' physical and mental health and parental relationship quality.
Mixed: Survey data/ coded interviews
Adolescents felt closer to parents when they shared their feelings, even if they were negative towards the other parent, however the adolescents still feel caught between the two parents and dislike that aspect of the disclosures. Adolescents feel that parents share more negative disclosures than the parents realize Afifi, Afifi &
Coho (2009), U.S.A.
Adolescents' physiological reactions to their parents' negative disclosures about the other parent in divorced and nondivorced families.
Quantitative: Survey data, skin conductance
Adolescents from divorced families had more self- reported anxiety when discussing relationships, marriage and divorce with parents, but not higher skin conductance.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
Afifi, Afifi, Morse, & Hamrick (2008), U.S.A.
Adolescents' avoidance tendencies and physiological reactions to discussions about their parents' relationship: Implications for post- divorce and non-divorced families
Quantitative: Survey data, skin conductance
Study measured physiological arousal, anxiety, and avoidance when adolescents spoke to parents about sensitive topics; adolescents from divorced families reported greater feelings of being caught and anxiety, and high self-reported topic avoidance.
Afifi, Huber, & Ohs (2006), U.S.A.
Parents' and adolescents' communication with each other about divorce-related stressors and its impact on their ability to cope positively with the divorce
Mixed: Survey data/ coded interviews
Children's communication about own stress regarding parental divorce enhanced their ability to positively cope; parents' communication with adolescents was negatively associated with adolescents' coping ability.
Afifi, McManus, Hutchinson, & Baker (2007), U.S.A.
Inappropriate parental divorce disclosure, the factors that prompt them, and their impact on parents' and adolescents' well-being
Quantitative:
Survey data Adolescents' perceptions of inappropriate disclosures were stronger predictor of well-being than parents' perceptions of disclosures; parents' and adolescents' well-being associated with one another when parents had stressful, high conflict relationship.
Burt, Barnes, McGue, & Iacono (2008), U.S.A.
Parental Divorce and Adolescent Delinquency: Ruling out the impact of common genes
Quantitative:
Survey data Delinquency following divorce more prevalent in cases where divorce occurred during adolescent's lifetime, not before birth; delinquency environmentally related to divorce, not genetically.
Dawson- McClure, Sandler, Wolchik, & Millsap (2004), U.S.A.
Risk as a moderator of the effects of prevention programs for children from divorced families: a six-year longitudinal study
Quantitative: Clinical diagnoses
Adolescent with higher risk scores subsequently more effected by the program; programs lessened internalizing and externalizing problems, low
competence, and mental disorder in adolescents initially at high risk.
Dennison & Koerner (2006), U.S.A.
Post-divorce inter-parental conflict and adolescents' attitudes about marriage: the influence of maternal disclosures and adolescent gender
Quantitative:
Survey data Post-divorce inter-parental conflict significantly predictive of less positive attitudes about marriage among adolescents; for girls, higher inter-parental conflict especially predictive of less positive attitudes about marriage when also exposed to frequent maternal disclosures regarding financial concerns.
Dennison & Koerner (2008), U.S.A.
A look at hopes and worries about marriage: the views of adolescents following a parental divorce
Qualitative: Written responses to open-ended questions
Higher levels of post-divorce conflict between parents predicted more negative attitudes regarding marriage for adolescents.
Ehrenberg, Stewart, Roche, Pringle, & Bush (2006), Canada.
Adolescents in divorcing families: perceptions of what helps and what hinders Qualitative: Written responses to open-ended questions
Seeking help from adult counselors or professionals and from friends helped adolescents cope with parental divorce.
Freedman & Knupp (2003), U.S.A.
The impact of forgiveness on adolescent adjustment to parental divorce
Quantitative: Survey data
No significant difference in forgiveness levels between the group that took an 8-week course and those who did not; those who took the course had larger increase in forgiveness from pre- to post-intervention. Freeman &
Newland (2002), U.S.A.
Family transitions during the adolescent transition: Implications for parenting
Quantitative:
Survey data Declines in parental control but not parental responsiveness for adolescents with divorced parents; gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic status effects on these variables.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
Ge, Natsuaki, & Conger (2006), U.S.A.
Trajectories of depressive symptoms and stressful life events among male and female adolescents in divorced and non-divorced families
Quantitative:
Survey data Individuals who experience parental divorce in early adolescence are at significantly higher risk for development of depressive symptoms than intact families; time of divorce in an adolescent's life is a predictor of trajectories of depressive symptoms. Gould, Shaffer,
Fisher & Garfinkel (1998), U.S.A.
Separation/divorce and child and adolescent completed suicide
Quantitative: Interviews/ Psychological assessments
Suicide victims significantly more likely to come from non-intact family.
Ham (2003), U.S.A.
The effects of divorce on the academic achievement of high school seniors
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents who come from intact families performed better academically and had better school attendance than those from divorced families.
Henderson, Hayslip, Sanders, & Louden (2009), U.S.A. Grandmother-grandchild relationship quality predicts psychological adjustment among youth from divorced families.
Quantitative: Survey data
When adolescents who experienced PMD reported close relationships with grandmothers they showed better adjustment than those who did not report close relationships, and a greater difference in adjustment than those from intact families.
Hermovich & Crano (2009), U.S.A.
Family structure and adolescent drug use: An exploration of single- parent families.
Quantitative: Survey data
National survey data determined that adolescents living primarily with father were most likely to use marijuana, amphetamines and inhalants. Adolescents in intact families less likely to use marijuana and amphetamines than from mother-only households.
Jeynes (2001), U.S.A.
The effects of recent parental divorce on their children's sexual attitudes and behaviour
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents from divorced families had more permissive attitudes toward premarital intercourse than adolescents from intact families.
Jeynes (2004),
U.S.A. Does parental involvement eliminate the effects of parental divorce on the academic achievement of adolescents?
Quantitative:
Survey data Adolescents from divorced families have lower academic achievement than adolescents from intact families; this effect not buffered by parental involvement levels.
Jeynes (2005), U.S.A.
Effects of parental involvement and family structure on the academic achievement of adolescents
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents from intact families and with higher parental involvement showed higher academic achievement.
Jonston (2003), U.S.A.
Parental alignments and rejection: an empirical study of alienation in children of divorce
Quantitative: Survey data/ observation
Adolescents' feelings towards parents range from positive to negative, with few being either extremely aligned or rejecting; rejection of parents has many contributing factors.
Kenyon & Koerner (2008), U.S.A.
Post-divorce maternal disclosure and the father-adolescent relationship: adolescent emotional autonomy and inter-reactivity as moderators
Quantitative:
Survey data Emotional inter-reactivity of boys moderates the association between mother-to-adolescent negative disclosure about father and adolescents' perceptions of the father-adolescent relationship quality; for girls, emotional autonomy and inter-reactivity failed to moderate association between mother-to-adolescent negative disclosures about father.
Kenyon, Rankin, Koerner, & Dennison (2007), U.S.A.
What makes an adult? Examining descriptions from adolescents of divorce Qualitative: Written responses to open-ended questions
Interviewing adolescents of divorce families, authors created new categories of adulthood.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
King & Sobolewski (2006), U.S.A.
Nonresident fathers' contributions to
adolescent well-being Mixed: Survey data Strong ties to nonresident father can benefit adolescents' well-being; boys benefited in grades, decreased acting- out in class; mother-child relationship has more consistent and greater effect on adolescents well-being than that of non-resident father.
Kirby (2002), U.S.A.
The influence of parental separation on smoking initiation in
adolescence
Quantitative: Survey data
Significantly higher proportion of adolescents from divorced parents began smoking over duration of study than from intact families.
Koerner, Kenyon & Rankin (2006), U.S.A.
Growing up faster? Post-divorce catalysts in the mother-adolescent relationship
Quantitative: Survey data
Mother disclosure regarding financial or employment concerns was associated with adolescents perceiving selves as older than peers; disclosures about personal concerns or negative ones regarding father/ex-husband correlated to greater social involvement/dating Koerner,
Wallace, Jacobs Lehman, Lee, & Escalante (2004), U.S.A.
Sensitive mother-to-adolescent disclosures after divorce: is the experience of sons different from that of daughters
Mixed: Survey data/ written answers
Frequent or detailed mother-to-adolescent disclosures related to divorce associated with adolescent adjustment difficulties, especially psychological distress.
Koerner, Wallace, Lehman, & Raymond (2002), U.S.A.
Mother-to-daughter disclosure after divorce: are there costs and benefits?
Quantitative: Survey data
Did not find benefits in mother-to-daughter disclosure regarding difficulties in sensitive areas, only costs to the mother-daughter relationships.
Mahon, Yarcheski, & Yarcheski (2003), U.S.A.
Anger, anxiety, and depression in early adolescents from intact and divorced families
Quantitative: Clinical diagnoses
Adolescents from divorced families have higher levels of state anger; not shown to have higher levels of anxiety; no difference between levels of depression between adolescents of divorced and intact families. Mandara &
Murray (2000), U.S.A.
Effects of parental marital status, income, and family functioning on African American adolescent self- esteem
Quantitative: Survey data
Parental divorce affects African American boys more than girls; boys from divorced families felt lower quality of family functioning; this effect buffered by higher family income; parental divorce led to boys' lower self-esteem.
Menning (2006), U.S.A.
Nonresident fathering and school failure
Quantitative: Survey data
Child support reduces probability of school failure; greater father involvement reduces probability of school dropout; adolescents whose fathers are completely uninvolved experience overall lower risk of failure than peers.
Menning (2008), U.S.A.
"I've kept it that way on purpose": Adolescents' management of negative parental relationship traits after divorce and separation
Qualitative: Interviews: Grounded Theory
Adolescents from divorced families evaluate parents negatively; present themselves in certain ways to parents to change amount of influence parents have through information control and contact control. Menning &
Stewart (2008), U.S.A.
Nonresident father involvement, social class, and adolescent weight
Quantitative: Survey data
Obesity more likely in adolescents who had relationship with non-resident father, which varied based on father's social class and weight, and adolescent's gender. Neher & Short
(1998), U.S.A.
Risk and protective factors for children's substance use and antisocial behaviour following parental divorce
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents from divorced families reported lower use of problem-focused coping, support-focused coping, esteem-focused coping, and social skills, and more substance-using friends, substance use, and anti-social behaviour.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
Pelton & Forehand (2001), U.S.A.
Discrepancy between mother and child perceptions of their relationship: I. Consequences for adolescents considered within the context of parental divorce
Quantitative:
Survey data Evaluated individual perspectives held by mothers and adolescents concerning their relationship; no support of moderating effect of divorce on association between discrepant views of the relationship and adolescent psychosocial adjustment as a significant interaction. Peris & Emery
(2004), U.S.A.
A prospective study of the consequences of marital disruption for adolescents: Pre-disruption family dynamics and post- disruption adolescent adjustment
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents in subsequently disrupting homes have higher rates of internalizing and externalizing disorders and need for psychological services.
Rebellon
(2002), U.S.A. Reconsidering the broken homes/delinquency relationship and exploring its mediating
mechanism's)
Quantitative:
Survey data Families who have PMD are responsible for more delinquency than previously thought, and in more violent forms; certain types of changes in family composition appear related to delinquency. Reese-Weber &
Kahn (2005). U.S.A.
Familial predictors of sibling and romantic-partner conflict resolution: comparing late adolescents from intact and divorced families
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents from divorced families viewed biological parents' conflict resolution with one another as more negative than adolescents from intact families; romantic relationship conflict resolution mediated by mother- adolescent and sibling conflict resolution. Risch, Jodl, &
Eccles (2004), U.S.A.
Role of the father-adolescent relationship in shaping adolescents' attitudes toward divorce
Mixed: Survey data/ coded interviews
Adolescent boys who felt close to custodial or noncustodial biological father were less likely to anticipate future divorce; boys' closeness to father or stepfather influenced attitudes toward divorce. Rodgers & Rose
(2002), U.S.A.
Risk and resiliency factors among adolescents who experience marital transitions
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents in divorced and remarried families more likely to show externalizing symptoms; not buffered by peer support; peer support did buffer internalizing disorders, which was most highly experienced by Caucasian females.
Roustit, Chaix, & Chauvin (2007), Canada
Family Breakup and Adolescent' Psychosocial Maladjustment: Public Health Implications of Family Disruption
Quantitative: Survey data
Adolescents living in one-biological parent household demonstrated higher risk for internalizing disorders, externalizing disorders, substance abuse and alcohol consumption; parental support had buffering effects; parental violence had negative effects.
Simons, Lin, Gordon, Conger, & Lorenz (1999), U.S.A.
Explaining the higher incidence of adjustment problems among children of divorce compared with those in two-parent families
Mixed: Survey data/ observation
Adolescents from divorced families more likely to experience depression than those from intact families; also experience more externalizing disorders; reasons for the externalizing disorders differs by gender.
Sintonge, Achille, & Lachance (1998), Canada
The influence of big brothers on the separation-individuation of adolescents from single-parent families
Quantitative: Survey data
Big Brother program helped adolescents from divorced mother-custody families in separation-individuation process.
Sun (2001), U.S.A.
Family environment and adolescents' well-being before and after parents' marital disruption: a longitudinal analysis
Quantitative: Survey data
Prospective longitudinal study; more academic, psychological, behavioural, and drug-related problems in adolescents from divorced families than those from intact families even before the divorce.
Sun & Li (2007), U.S.A.
Racial and ethnic differences in experiencing parents' marital disruption during late adolescence
Quantitative: Survey data
Prospective longitudinal study; fewer pre-disruption differences between Hispanic adolescents from divorced and intact families than African-, European- and Asian-Americans; post-disruption effects in non- Hispanic group at least partially attributable to parental divorce.
Author (Year) Country
Title Methods Key Findings
Sun & Li
(2008). U.S.A. Parents' marital disruption and its uneven effect on children's academic performance--a simulation model.
Quantitative:
Survey data Significant proportion of children who experienced parents' divorce suffered academically; authors recommend counseling or help for children after PMD to minimize effects.
Sun & Li
(2009a), U.S.A. Parental divorce, sibship size, family resources, and children's academic performance
Quantitative:
Survey data Divorce's negative effects on academic performance decrease in adolescents with siblings. Varies by number of siblings in the family and school subject.
Sun & Li (2009b), U.S.A.
Post-divorce family stability and changes in adolescents' academic performance: A growth-curve model.
Quantitative: Survey data
The more familial instability that an adolescent experiences, especially following a PMD, the more likely their grades are to suffer. This differs based on gender and school subject
Videon (2002), U.S.A.
The Effects of parent-adolescent relationships and parental separation on adolescent well-being
Quantitative: Survey data
Quality of relationship between adolescent and opposite-sex parent did not effect likelihood of delinquecy when later living apart from them; living with the same-sex parent does not significantly effect delinquency; quality of parent-adolescent relationship does not predict depression once the adolescent moves out of that parent's house.
Wolchik, Sandler, Millsap, Plummer, Greene, Anderson… Haine (2002), U.S.A.
Six-Year Follow-up of Preventive Interventions for Children of Divorce: A Randomized Control Trial
Quantitative: Clinical diagnoses
Intervention programs with mother or with mother and adolescents together; targets mother-child relationship; reduced future development of disorder diagnosis and symptom count, externalizing disorders, alcohol and drug use, and number of sexual partners.
Zhou, Sandler, Millsap, Wolchik, & Dawson- McClure (2008), U.S.A.
Mother-child relationship quality and effective discipline as mediators of the 6-year effects of the New Beginnings Program for children from divorced families
Quantitative: Survey data
Involvement in program improved effective maternal discipline, had a positive impact on adolescents' GPA's and improved mother-child relationship quality which lowered adolescent mental health problems in adolescents who initially proved to be at risk.