Command and control instruments

Command and control instruments refer to government regulations that can be enforced through penalties. They are very popular instruments in environmental policy because it is believed that these achieve their objectives quicker and with greater certainty than economic instruments (Harrington / Morgenstern 2004, 13-17). However, they have higher administrative costs and often do not lead to innovation, since by setting a limit they do not encourage a performance level that is better than the limit sets down (Beerepoot 2007, 7).

Codes and standards in the case of EEB are the command and control measures, which are often used. Codes and standards regulate goals and technologies buildings must reach and comply with. They set energy- efficiency targets and often require the installation and use of specific types of equipment. In China, there are national as well as regional standards and standards for public and commercial as well as

residential buildings. The standards only refer to newly constructed buildings; there are no standards for existing buildings.

a) National standards

According to the “Standard of Climatic Regionalization for Architecture” (GB 50178-93), China is divided into five climate zones: “extremely cold”, “cold”, “hot summer and cold winter”, “hot summer and warm winter” and “warm”. Starting in 1986, the Chinese government issued several standards referring to EEB in these different climate zones (Liang et al. 2007, 1098). These will be listed under b) regional standards. However, there are several national standards as well:

The “Thermal design code for public buildings” (GB 50189-2005) contains the target of a 50 percent reduction in heating, cooling ventilation, air conditioning and lighting energy. It was approved in 2005, and refers to newly constructed public and commercial buildings (Liang et al. 2007, 1102). A national standard for residential buildings has not yet been developed, but regional standards for residential buildings do exist (see b) regional standards). However, the 2007 National Standard for Residential Buildings, which aims to harmonize the current building standards, is under consideration (IEA 2007b, 383).

In March 2006, an evaluation standard for green buildings (GB/T 50378-2006) was published. The standard concerns all new buildings, building extensions and renovations (includes residential and public buildings). The evaluation should be undertaken in the first year of operation following the completion of the building. However, the standard is not compulsory, and is in its test phase. The evaluation consists of building performance monitoring and an economic evalu- ation throughout the whole life cycle. The main criteria for the evaluation are: land conservation and environmental protection, energy conservation and use, water conservation and use, materials conser- vation and resource use, indoor environmental quality and management (residential buildings) and life cycle performance (public buildings).

There are further specific standards and codes which prescribe technical requirements:

• Technical standard for outside isolation of outside walls (JGJ144- 2004)

• Technical standard for performance assessment of residential buildings (GB/T50362-2005)

• Technical standard for the employment of solar water heater systems (GB50364-2005)

• Technical standard for the operation and management of air conditioning and ventilation systems (GB50365-2005)

• Technical standard for heat pump systems (GB50366-2005)

• Standard for the construction of residential buildings (GB50368- 2005)

b) Regional standards

The above listed national standards apply to every region and climate zone in China. However, local governments can have their own standards and codes as long as they go beyond the national ones. One example is the 65 percent standard in Beijing and three other municipalities, which exceeds the national one of 50 percent (energy-saving design standard for the heating of residential buildings DBJ 01-602-2004, energy-saving design standard for the heating of public buildings DBJ 01-621-2005). Apart from the national standards, there are specific standards for the different climate zones in China:

The “Energy Design Code for Heated Residential Buildings” (JGJ 26-86) of 1986 was issued for the extremely cold and cold zones. The goal was a 30 percent decrease in energy consumption relative to “base buildings” constructed in 1980-81 (Lang 2004, 1192). The standard was revised in December 1995 and renamed “Energy conservation design standard for new heated residential buildings” (JGJ 26-95). The new increased energy- saving target was 50 percent. A table allows constructors to easily determine the heat-transfer coefficients of their building’s envelope (Lang 2004, 1192). To assure compliance with the standard, the Ministry of Construction (now MOHURD) approved the “Standard for Energy- efficiency Inspection of Heated Residential Buildings” (JGJ 132-2001) in

February 2001. It specifies inspection and testing methods to serve as a guideline for inspectors. In October 2000, the Ministry approved the “Technical Specification for Energy Conservation Renovation of Existing Heated Residential Buildings” (JGJ 129-2000), a guideline for the retrofitting of existing buildings both with and without central heating systems that are located in the extremely cold and cold regions (Lang 2004, 1193 f.).

In 2001 and 2003, the “Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings in the Hot Summer and Cold Winter Zone” (JGJ 134-2001) and the “Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings in the Hot Summer and Warm Winter Zone” (JGJ 75-2003) were approved by the Ministry of Construction. Both include the 50 percent energy-saving target. Standard JGJ 134-2001 contains sections on indoor thermal environments, energy efficient building designs, and heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. It refers to newly constructed buildings as well as retrofits and renovations in the hot summer, cold winter zone. The standard is both performance-based and prescriptive in defining either the allowable energy consumption per square meter or the allowable heat-transfer coefficient of the building envelope as well as the minimum required energy efficiency of heating and cooling devices (Lang 2004, 1194). Standard JGJ 75-2003 differs only slightly from JGJ 134-2001. It also contains performance-based and prescriptive measures but focuses more on shading coefficients and glazing requirements as solar heat gain is a very important issue in the hot summer, warm winter region (Lang 2004, 1195).