Compensating Foreign Language Elements

On a very few rare occasions, the translation actually introduces foreign language elements where there were none in the original text. The phenomenon occurs with several languages. For French, I have already mentioned a few. For example, the ‘Field of the Cloth of Gold’ was translated with ‘Le Camp du Drap d’Or’, instead of the Dutch alternative, het ‘Goudlakenkamp’, most likely because the French sounds more elaborate and lavish. Moreover, I cited a passage earlier of the speech of Christophe, Cromwell’s young French servant, which in the translation contained more French than in the source text. There are a few other instances of French being introduced as a foreign language element in the translation where there was none in the source text. For one, the Spanish ambassador at court, Eustace Chaphuys, often complains about his work and having to send constant dispatches to the Spanish Emperor to keep him updated on the state of affairs in England (he is Queen Katherine’s nephew, and thus the matter of Henry and Katherine’s pending divorce lies close to heart). The first time he does so, he does it in French, saying “‘Les dépeches, toujour les dépêches’” (ST 192), but throughout the rest of the novel, he uses the English term ‘dispatches’. The translation, however, consistently uses the French ‘dépêches’ instead.

Another instance of French occurring where there is none in the original is when reference is made to eight “anterooms” (ST 199), and an “antichamber” (594). In the source text, only the first portion of the words have a French root, the ‘anti-‘ part, and they are considered to be English. However, they are translated as “antichambre(s)” (TT 211, 606), with the second half of the word made

French as well. On another occasion, French is used not instead of English, but instead of a different foreign language; it is said that “[n]ews comes from France of the cardinal’s triumphs, parades, public masses and extempore Latin orations” (ST 106), which is translated as “[v]anuit Frankrijk komt bericht over de triomfen van de kardinaal, optochten, openbare missen en redevoeringen à l’improviste in het Latijn” (TT 117, my emhasis).

Finally, there are a few English items which are borrowed into the Dutch translation and given foreign element status there; the interjection “aye” (ST 345, 354) is rendered as “Aye” (TT 356, 365) both times it occurs. This interjection adds character to the interaction between the characters in

question and adds a hint of foreigness to the narrative without negatively affecting the audience’s comprehension of the scene, and therefore contributes to the audience’s overal reading experience.

5.7 Quotations & References to Real-World Publications

Wolf Hall is filled with references to real-world novels, poems, songs and political or religious tracts. There are several types of these references. First of all, in some cases, the novel quotes lines from political tracts of legislative texts, such as legal acts Cromwell is drawing up. These lines are generally integrated into the narrative at points where they are highly relevant and it is important for the audience to understand them. Therefore, they are generally handled in the translation by use of the procedure of literal translation. For example, in the following passage, Cromwell is working on the law that will establish Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, a crucial turning point in the narrative, because it is what ultimately gives him the power to divorce his wife Queen Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn instead, and has far-reaching consequences for Christianity in England.

He writes, ‘This realm of England is an Empire.’ This realm of England is an Empire, and so has been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head and King …

(ST 426) Dan schrijft hij: HET KONINKRIJK ENGELAND IS EEN IMPERIUM. Het koninkrijk

Engeland is een imperium, en als zodanig erkend door de wereld, geregeerd door één soeverein vorst en koning …

(TT 438-9) On the other hand, there are instances in which quotations from real-world publications do not play a major part in the narrative; they are many direct quotations of songs, both in English and in other languages, which are typically borrowed in the translation and remain unaltered, and serve as markers of foreignness in the Dutch narrative. A great deal of these are quotations from songs written by Heny VIII himself, like the example down below.

As the holly groweth green And never changes hue So am I and ever hath been,

Unto my lady true.

Green groweth the holly, so doth the ivy. Though winter blasts blow ever so high.

Similarly, a Spanish song about a boy named Scaramella who goes to war is also borrowed in full: Scaramella va alla guerra

Colla lancia et la rotella La zombero boro borombetta

La borro borombo …

(ST 206/TT 218) No translation is provided in the source text at this point; later on in the novel, this soldier’s song is referred to again, and at that point it is partly translated: “Scaramella to the war has gone, with his shield, his lance” (ST 390). In accordance with the way things have been done in the source text, the translation leaves the Spanish lines untranslated the first time, and provides a Dutch translation on that later occurence: “Scaramella trekt ten strijde, met zijn schild, met zijn lans” (TT 401).

The final type of reference to a real-world publication that occurs in Wolf Hall does not involve direct quotations; instead, these are references to the title of a novel or the setting thereof. Generally speaking, title references are translated to what the works in question are most widely known as in Dutch, which can involve a language change. For example, “The Golden Legend” (ST 221), a work of saints’ lives, is translated as “Legenda Aurea” (TT 233), whereas for “Le Morte d’Arthur” (ST 221), mentioned in the same sentence, the French title is borrowed. Tyndale’s “The Obedience of a Christian Man” (ST 242) is translated as “The Obedience of a Christian Man” (TT 254), whereas Luther’s “Liberty of a Christian Man” (ST 335) is translated as “De vrijheid van een christen” (ST 346). The English work by Tyndale is lesser known in the Netherlands, whereas Luther’s works were translated into Dutch early on in the Reformation period and are thus more widely known by their translated Dutch titles. Similarly, Niccolo Machiavelli’s book

“Principalities” (ST 105) is known as “Il Principe” (TT 116) in Dutch, but Luca Pacioli’s

mathematical book “Summa de Arithmetica” (ST 363) is more widely known by its original Latin title, and thus the title is borrowed in the translation (TT 375).

References to the setting of a real-world publication also occur. For example, Cromwell’s biggest adversary at court is the lawyer and devout Catholic Sir Thomas More, one of the king’s primary advisors. More’s best-known work is called Utopia: it is a “work of fiction and political philosophy”, a “frame narrative primarily depicting a fictional island society” (“Utopia (book)”). Cromwell uses this notion of an ideal land, a Utopia, to mock More on several occasions, as do others; at some point, a fellow lawyer observes that perhaps, Thomas More’s time has passed, saying that “Utopia, after all, is not a place one can live” (ST 340). Such references are borrowed in

the translation, without any background information being given. After all, no added information is given to the source text audience either, so the reference is obviously intended to remain obscure. Another reason for the borrowing is most likely that the land of Utopia has no Dutch name to call it by; the Latin ‘Utopia’ is used in the Dutch translation of More’s novel as well as the English one. In some cases, however, novel settings are referenced which do have a Dutch established equivalent. In those cases, those equivalents are used. For example, when Cromwell’s father, a smith, observes that “if horseshoes were lucky, boy, I would be the King of Cockaigne” (ST 571), this phrase is translated as “Als hoefijzers geluk brachten, jong, dan was ik nu koning van Kokanje” (TT 582). The source text refers to the medieval poetry tradition about a land of plentiful food and drink. The modern Dutch term, ‘Kokanje’, is descended from Middle Dutch or Belgian ‘Cockaengen’, which ultimately derives from Old French and means ‘land of plenty’ (“Cockaigne”).