SCIENCE TEACHING AND LEARNING 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Conceptualizing teaching and learning
Firstly, it is necessary to understand what “teaching” entails before getting into “creative ways of teaching”. Broadly, teaching can be defined as a part of a bigger whole that comprises the teacher, the learner, the disciplinary content, the teaching/learning process, and the evaluation of both the teacher and the learner (National Research Council, 1997:2). Learning, on the other hand, involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values or attitudes that can be applied in different domains. Learning, according to Guthrie (1991:156) distinguishes humans from other primates because it enables humans to develop language and tool making. Thus humans, unlike lower animals, are able to communicate and express their thoughts, feelings and emotions through language.
Pedagogically, it is very difficult to separate teaching from learning, because learning is perceived as the product of effective teaching. In other words, teaching is carried out for learning to take place; learning is a goal of teaching. In the context of this study, learning would then refer to the interaction between the teacher, the teaching agent(s) and the learner, and would support the idea that there would be no learning without teaching. A review of the extant literature reveals at least four basic elements incorporated in teaching and learning, namely: (i) engaging students in the teaching-learning process, (ii) establishing content for exploration, (iii) proposing explanations, (iv) reading and writing for understanding (National Research Council –NRC, 1997: 24-25). This implies that effective teaching and learning is a product of various interactions between the teacher and the learner that involve creativity by the teacher and the learner in terms of teaching and learning strategies. In the case of science teaching and learning, creativity is essential for promoting scientific literacy (Foreman, 2005:111; Roden & Ward, 2005:3). The words of Harlen & Qualter (2004) seem to suggest that the talent of creativity is
there in every individual, but it needs to be stimulated or triggered in certain ways that involve active participation by the learner. They assert that:
…science is a distinct form of creative human activity which involves one way of seeing, exploring and understanding reality…We all have the capacity to be creative (Harlen & Qualter, 2004:82).
Being creative, on the part of a learner, has to do with constructive learning. That is, the learner should be given an opportunity to play an active role in her learning in order to build up her understanding of the subject content. Creativity goes hand in hand with the development of knowledge process skills and scientific attitudes which form the core of science learning. Harlen & Qualter (2004:84) mention four features of creativity, namely, (1) learners’ imagination, (2) executing activities for a purpose, (3) originality and (4) being judgmental. Other features of creativity include curiosity, resourcefulness, desire to discover, critical thinking, insight, ability to synthesize and see new implications, and many others. Of importance is that creativity is inquiry based, and it stimulates learners’ critical and reflective thinking skills.
Imagination encourages the learners to think and make sense of the ideas they have made about the world. They have to develop curiosity that will encourage them to observe and question scientific information. This relates to the first Learning Outcome (LO1) of the Natural Sciences Learning Area which requires learners to conduct scientific investigations in order to get a better understanding of science. That is, science investigations are purposeful. By so doing, learners acquire scientific literacy which is discussed in depth in the Section 4.3 below.
As children go on with their science investigations, they generate new ideas as they observe and interpret investigations. Such activities promote learners’ originality as they carry out investigations independently, and arrive at conclusions. At the end of an investigation, the learners have to question the validity of their results compared to acceptable scientific standards. In other words, they must reflect critically on the results they have obtained in order to compare them with the initial purpose of the investigation.
On the part of the teacher, creativity has implications for curriculum development, teaching styles and language(s) of learning and teaching. As mentioned earlier, creativity needs co-operation and communication between the teacher and the learner. Both parties should understand each other so that all the activities can be carried out properly. One wonders if creativity can be developed in a case where there is a mismatch between the language used by the teacher and the learners in the teaching-learning process.
To enhance creativity by learners in the classroom, the relationship between the teacher and learners is important. Martin, Sexton & Gervolich (1994:49) mention three types of relationships in science teaching, namely, authoritarian, laissez-faire and democratic teaching relationships. In an authoritarian relationship, the teacher takes control of the classroom, and the teacher is the only active participant in the teaching-learning process. In this relationship, learners remain passive, and their thinking is limited to teacher’s decisions. Learning often occurs through recalling and recitation of facts. Therefore, authoritarian teaching can be associated with teacher-centredness which limits learner creativity to a certain extent.
In a laissez-faire relationship learners are left on their own to decide what they want to do and how they want to do it. There is no guidance or leadership by the teacher in a laissez-faire relationship, and it often shows the teacher’s poor or lack of leadership skills and planning. This kind of relationship does not encourage a sense of responsibility in learners as there is no meaningful guidance or control by the teacher. Also, it does not encourage active participation by the learners in learning activities, and effective learning in this kind of situation may not be guaranteed.
A democratic relationship, on the other hand, allows the teacher to work cooperatively with learners, while maintaining a reasonable control in the classroom. In this kind of relationship, the classroom atmosphere is flexible and relaxed, and there is always mutual trust and openness between the teacher and learners. This kind of atmosphere usually reduces fear among learners, and encourages learners to express themselves freely in the classroom. The democratic view of science learning and teaching helps learners to
construct their knowledge through collaborative or group learning. Unlike authoritarian teaching, the democratic relationship is learner-centred because the learners are encouraged to play an active role in the classroom activities. Thus it encourages or promotes learner creativity. The following section gives a definition of scientific literacy as one of the major outcomes of science teaching and learning.
In the context of this research, the teaching and learning process can be explained in terms of languages used to teach science. Given the fact that teaching and learning are mutual or interdependent processes, language plays a crucial role in enhancing interaction or communication between the teacher and the learners. In relation to the importance of language input in teaching and learning (e.g. i + 1) and the complexity of science language as explained in the preceding chapter, the language of instruction becomes a crucial factor in determining the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. That is, if the language used in the classroom is not comprehensible to learners, learning may be adversely affected. In simple terms, if the teachers use English (L2) to communicate scientific instructions to learners who are not proficient in the language, it is likely that learners may not understand the instructions, and that can impact negatively on their creativity and imagination necessary for making sense of what is learnt. Likewise, if teachers have limited proficiency in English (i.e. limited input); it is possible that they may not convey the correct information or instructions to the learners. That may also lead to misunderstandings that can hinder learners’ understanding of scientific concepts. In the following section I discuss scientific literacy as a key aspect in science learning.