People connected to nature have been found to be healthier overall than individuals that are not connected to nature. There is currently an increasing evidence base to show that exposure to the natural environment positively affects physical health and mental wellbeing (Bowler et al., 2010).
Researchers have long maintained that human beings derive physical and psychological benefits from spending time in the natural world (Leopold, 1970; Berry, 1978; Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
The past two decades of research have highlighted the benefits of contact with nature and wellbeing (Pretty et al., 2005; Mayer et al., 2009; Barton and Pretty, 2010). Spending time in nature or even viewing nature does not only reduce stress, but can also reduce aggression and violence (Kaplan, 1995). Also, an innate closeness to nature increases wellbeing (Pretty et al., 2003). Wilson (1984) explains this behaviour through his ‘Biophilia’ hypothesis where he suggests that humans have an inherent inclination to affiliate with nature (Wilson and Wilson, 1984; McVay et al., 1995).
Biophilia implies affection for plants and other living things.
For over a decade, researchers at the University of Essex have conducted several studies to investigate the synergistic benefits of engaging in physical activities whilst simultaneously being exposed to nature referred to as ‘green exercise’ (Pretty et al., 2005; Barton and Pretty, 2010;
Gladwell et al., 2013; Wood et al., 2014).
Green exercise has positive social benefits because it brings about social cohesion, inclusion and integration (Newton, 2007). Several studies show how green spaces in parks, streets and allotment
Chapter 1. Sports, Environment and Wellbeing
43 in urban areas encourage more social interaction and bring people together (Peters et al., 2010;
Okvat and Zautra, 2011).
There is mounting empirical evidence that interacting with nature delivers measurable mental and psychological benefits to people (Pretty et al., 2009; Barton et al., 2012; Keniger et al., 2013). In a study led by Pretty in 2005, the emotional responses of participants exposed to a sequence of natural and urban landscape images while running on a treadmill in a laboratory were examined.
Mood and self-esteem both improved with exposure to natural scenes, thereby emphasising that exercise may deliver greater benefits when it occurs in the presence of nature (Pretty, 2005; Pretty et al., 2006).
Pretty et al. (2007) investigated the effects of green exercise initiatives in the UK, and found that participants’ mood and self-esteem (as measured by self-report surveys) were significantly improved after exercise, implying that exercise in natural environments can improve psychological wellbeing. This study did not however include a control treatment (with exercise in a non-natural setting) and so it was not clear whether the natural environment itself was contributing to the effect or whether exercises in the natural environment or exercise alone was sufficient.
In a recent literature review led by Keniger and colleagues, they classified settings, interactions and potential benefits of people-nature experiences and used these to organise an assessment of the benefits of interacting with nature (Keniger et al., 2013). They discovered that the benefit of interacting with nature is geographically biased towards high latitudes and Western societies, potentially contributing to a focus on certain types of settings and benefits. The assessment noted that social scientists have been the most active researchers in this field. Contributions from ecologists are few in numbers, possibly impeding the identification of key ecological features of the natural environment that deliver human benefits. Although many types of benefits have been
Chapter 1. Sports, Environment and Wellbeing
studied, as reported earlier, benefits to physical health, cognitive performance and psychological wellbeing have received much more attention than social or spiritual benefits of interacting with nature, despite the potential for important consequences arising from the latter. The evidence for most benefits is correlational, and although there are several experimental studies, little as yet is known about the mechanisms that are important for delivering these benefits. For example, the review stated that it was not known which characteristics of natural settings (e.g. biodiversity, level of disturbance, proximity, accessibility) are most important for triggering a beneficial interaction and how these characteristics vary in importance among cultures, geographical regions and socio-economic groups (Keniger et al., 2013).
Metzgar (2012) aimed to reframe the sustainability of exercise by looking at physical activity from a natural perspective. The report focused on all aspects of sustainability, and the possibilities for how and where to engage in bodily exercise beyond traditional gym where a series of manoeuvres are presented to people in a more formal, and developmentally appropriate manner. The article reported that other models of physical activity besides traditional gym exercise, such as the green gym (which is a way to get fit and healthy by being more physically active in the outdoors), might both reduce energy consumption and increase health outcomes. However, the possibility of a shift towards exercise in outdoor location raised several concerns (Metzgar, 2012). The first concern was the sufficiency of access to the natural environment, which in urban settings may be limited to parks (Veugelers et al., 2008). The second concern was the issue of climate, for it has been previously shown that season or time of year affects the level of recreational physical activities (Burton et al., 2003). Therefore, exercise in a natural setting may be less appealing in certain climates or seasons. The third concern was the inclement weather, such as rain or snow, and how that may hinder motivation to engage in nature outdoors, which Nies and Motyta (2006) also supported. The fourth concern was the potential for over-exposure to sunlight and its associated risks, although these could be lessened through simple measures such as sunscreens and
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45 education. The last concern was the issue of social support, which is primary to behavioural change, particularly since people generally prefer exercising in a social setting (Nies and Motyka, 2006; Greaves, 2011).
Further research by Coon et al. (2011) compared the effects of physical activity on mental and physical wellbeing, health-related quality of life and long-term adherence to physical activity and participation in physical activity in natural environments to physical activity indoors. The researchers conducted a systemic review of literature from 11 clinical studies involving 833 adult subjects, each of which compared the effects of outdoor exercise initiatives with indoor activities.
The results showed some improvement in mental wellbeing on one or other of the outcome measures. Compared to exercising indoors, exercising outdoors was associated with greater feelings of revitalisation, positive engagement and increased energy, plus a decrease in tension, confusion, anger and depression. However, the results suggested that feelings of calmness might decrease following outdoor exercise. Participants in the research also reported greater enjoyment and satisfaction with outdoor activity and declared a greater intent to repeat the activity at a later date. However, this research did not measure the effects of physical activity on wellbeing or the effect of natural environments on exercise adherence. This review has shown some encouraging outcomes on self-reported mental wellbeing immediately following exercise in nature, which are not seen following similar exercise indoors (Thompson-Coon et al., 2011).
A multi-study analysis by Pretty and Barton (2010) assessed the best regime of doses of acute exposure to green exercise required to improve self-esteem and mood, which are both indicators of mental health. They used a meta-analysis methodology to analyse 10 UK studies. The research looked at many different outdoor activities including walking, gardening, cycling, fishing, horse riding and farming in locations such as a park, garden and natural trail. Dose responses were assessed for exercise intensity and exposure duration (Barton and Pretty, 2010). The results
Chapter 1. Sports, Environment and Wellbeing
showed that the greatest effect was seen within just five minutes of engaging in physical activity outdoors, and, with longer periods of time exercising in a green environment, the positive effects were clearly apparent but were of smaller magnitude. These research results will be of great value for policy recommendations (Pretty, 2006), but the challenge for policy makers is that such recommendations on physical activities are clearly identified but unlikely to be implemented widely.
A review by Gladwell and her colleagues (2013) considered the declining levels of physical activity, particularly in the Western world, and how the environment may help motivate and facilitate physical activity. The review also addressed the additional physiological and mental health benefits that appear to occur when exercise is performed in an outdoor environment (Gladwell et al., 2013).
The review claims that participating in physical activity in a natural environment, or green exercise, might engage people in physical activity by increasing enjoyment of participation, offering social interaction and increasing frequency of activity. This is evident from the study that outdoor natural environments may provide some of the best all-round health benefits by increasing physical activity levels with lower levels of perceived exertion, altering physiological functioning including stress reduction, plus restoring mental fatigue and improving mood, self-esteem and perceived health.
A study by Barton et al. (2009) focused on evaluating changes in self-esteem and mood after walking in four different National Trust sites in the East of England, pre and post activity. The findings from the study found that self-esteem scores for visitors leaving the sites were significantly higher than those just arriving and overall mood also significantly improved. Feelings of anger, depression, tension and confusion all significantly reduced while vigour increased. The study concluded that the environment plays an important role in facilitating physical activities and helps to address sedentary behaviours. Walking in particular can serve many purposes, including exercise, relaxation, travel, recreation and restoration. Moreover, walking in green space or the natural environment may offer a more sustainable option, as the primary reward is enhanced emotional
Chapter 1. Sports, Environment and Wellbeing
47 wellbeing through both exposure to nature and participation in exercise (Barton et al., 2009).
Studies have reported that connection to nature results in lower levels of overall state cognitive and trait cognitive anxiety (Martyn and Brymer, 2014). Also, connection to nature predicts pro-environmental behaviour and personal wellbeing (Sanguinetti, 2014). Research have suggested that contact with nature generally improves mood, cognition and health (Capaldi et al., 2014).
The location where people engage in sport is important. If people love nature they will always behave in an environmentally friendly way by engaging in sport outdoors thereby enhancing their wellbeing. Therefore, this research will examine the benefits associated with involving in sport in the natural environment.
Currently, the world physical activities guidelines suggest that adults aged 18-64 should do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or can do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or an equivalent combination of moderate-and-intensity activity (Cooper et al., 2015; Sparling et al., 2015). Aerobic activity involves movement of large muscles, such as those in the arms and legs and causes a slight or significant increase in breathing and heart rate depending on the intensity. Examples of moderate-intensity aerobic activity include: brisk walking, leisure swimming, leisure cycling, line dancing and playing tennis, while examples of vigorous-intensity aerobic activity includes jogging or running, playing singles tennis, skipping with a rope, playing basketball or football and swimming continuously (Lonsdale et al., 2013).
There is much literature to suggest that physical activity or sport has positive benefits on people’s health and wellbeing across several physical and mental health outcomes (Oja et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2012; Nielsen et al., 2014; Stanton et al., 2014). The benefits range from desirable health outcomes across a variety of physical conditions, such as type 2 diabeties, cardiovascular
Chapter 1. Sports, Environment and Wellbeing
disease,obesity and other diseases. Similarly, participants in randomised clinical trials of physical activity interventions show better outcomes, including better general and health-related quality of life, better functional capacity and better mood states (Townsend et al., 2002; Penedo and Dahn, 2005).
The additional benefits of physical activity or sports outdoor also known as green exercise include:
improvement in mood and increases in self-esteem above and beyond that of exercise alone, may reduce rating or perceived exertion, it makes you more likely to continue to participate in physical activity in the future and it adds some variety and fun (Network, 2015). Research has confirmed that engaging in physical activities in an indoor and outdoor environment, such as running, walking and gardening, frequently results in improved wellbeing (Peacock et al., 2007; Sugiyama and Thompson, 2007; Barton and Pretty, 2010; Bowler et al., 2010; Bergstad et al., 2011; Coon et al., 2011; Nisbet et al., 2011). Studies also indicate that there may even be synergistic benefits from being physically active, whilst simultaneously being directly exposed to nature.