Within a practice-based approach of knowing and organization, our analysis contributes to advancing our understanding of micro internal phenomena and their relationship to more macro elements in/of the organization.
In the first place, our study complements seminal practice-oriented researches on knowing integration. Whereas Dougherty (1992), Bechky (2003) and Carlile (2002) focused on knowing integration across communities in organizations, our study tackled intra-community integration. Adopting a somehow collective level of analysis, these past studies evidenced inter-community heterogeneity and difficulties, but also built on an implicit view of intra-community homogeneity. In this regard, we were able to complement former researches.
Adopting a more micro level of analysis, we evidenced differences and heterogeneity in cooks knowing inside the kitchen, partly due to individuals' past experience, specific sensitivity and role in the kitchen. Therefore we suggest that knowing combination happens across but also inside communities. Moreover, knowing integration across communities appeared problematic and difficult. This justified the need for specific devices such as boundary objects, to facilitate knowing transformation. In contrast, our analysis points to knowing integration being smoother at a lower level: although it is definitely a complex
phenomenon, knowing integration remains natural for the cooks. In particular, we suggest that knowledge does not need to be captured: knowing is an ongoing flow embedded in practice. Here, we diverge from Dougherty's (2004) study of service innovation where she argues that organizing devices are needed in order to facilitate the exploitation of knowledge for innovation. She tends to favour the view that everyone has to be kept "in the know" and
"enact similar knowledge as they go about their work" (Dougherty 2004, p. 53) whereas we outline the richness of diversity and heterogeneity in knowing.
Second, our analysis of knowing integration provides better insights for the practice-based approach of organizations. We confirm the central role of knowing for practice (Orlikowski 2000, Nicolini et al 2003) and particularly the importance of tacit and perceptual elements.
Our analysis further points to the inseparability between knowing integration and the doing of actors during practice in organizations. Practice is not only an occasion for knowing integration; it is integration itself. In this regard, we advance literature on practice that suggests that knowing is something that people do together (Gergen 1991, Gherardi 2006, p. 41). More specifically, past research (Nicolini et al. 2003, Antonacopoulou 2006 for example) focused on describing both the doing of actors and their knowing but did not specify the relationships between them. Analysing knowing integration, we shed light on such relationship: comprehending, interpreting, explicitating bridge knowing and doing and practicing in organization is always a matter of integrating knowing.
We further suggest that knowing can remain individual while being integrated in a collective practice. Knowing is rooted in the personal experience and dispositions of individuals.
However, it is social because it is enacted in a shared practice for organization purpose. In that, we rejoin Chia and McKay’s view of the individual contribution to the collective practice, in "a perspective which situates the practitioner, right from the start, in the context of an active engagement with the constituents of his or her surroundings" (Chia and McKay 2007, p. 233). Yet we suggest in addition that the relation between the individual and collective levels is bidirectional. The combination of individual specific knowing contributes to forming
organizational achievements. At the same time, the organization shapes individual knowing and the combination dynamics.
Last, our study opens avenues for bridging the micro aspects of practice creation (rooted in individual knowing integration) and the macro elements leading to competitive success of the organization. This has been a founding concern for the development of the practice-based approach on strategizing which ambitions to outline, explore and reframe the link between more micro and macro levels of analysis (Johnson et al 2003). Yet and as discussed by Carter et al. (2008, p. 86) very few convincing efforts have been dedicated to achieving this goal so far. Our study represents an attempt in this regard as it relates individual knowing, the creation practice of new dishes and competitive advantage of the restaurant. Further research could fruitfully expand our results to other contexts and organizational dimensions.
VI Conclusion
Within a practice-based approach of organizations and knowing, we explored the integration phenomena at the roots of competitive advantage (Grant 1996 a and b). While former knowing integration studies have pointed to the importance of boundary objects across occupational communities (Carlile 2002, Bechky 2003), knowing integration inside a community to ground competitive advantage remained to be explored. How do individuals integrate their knowing in practice, in complex and important situations in order to contribute to competitive advantage for the firm? Building on an epistemology of practice, we studied the case of new dishes creation in gourmet restaurants to develop a view of knowing integration as a combination. We highlighted integration as a three-facet phenomenon:
comprehending, interpreting and explicitating. We showed that integration leads to the development of new dishes while knowing remains largely individual. We therefore suggested that there exists a clear distinction between knowing integration and knowledge sharing or transfer. We also contributed to a clearer delineation between integration and explicitation, the latter being only one and secondary means to achieve the former. Our study advances practice-based studies of organizations by highlighting the central role of integration in knowing dynamics. We also contribute to bridging micro and macro
perspectives on practice, therefore demonstrating the analytical power of the epistemology of practice in organizations, especially to connect lived work and organizational strategic issues.
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LISTE OF ESSEC RESEARCH CENTER WORKING PAPERS
(Contact the ESSEC RESEARCH CENTER for information on how to obtain copies of these papers) [email protected]
2004
04001 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Excessive Liability Dollarization in a Simple Signaling Model
04002 ALFANDARI Laurent
Choice Rules Size Constraints for Multiple Criteria Decision Making
04003 BOURGUIGNON Annick, JENKINS Alan
Management Accounting Change and the Construction of Coherence in Organisations: a Case Study
04004 CHARLETY Patricia, FAGART Marie-Cécile, SOUAM Saïd Real Market Concentration through Partial Acquisitions
04005 CHOFFRAY Jean-Marie La révolution Internet
04006 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi
The Paris Residential Market: Driving Factors and Market Behaviour 1973-2001
04007 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi Physical Real Estate: A Paris Repeat Sales Residential Index
04008 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu The Information Limit to Honest Managerial Behavior
04009 BIZET Bernard
Public Property Privatization in France
04010 BIZET Bernard
Real Estate Taxation and Local Tax Policies in France
04011 CONTENSOU François
Legal Profit-Sharing: Shifting the Tax Burden in a Dual Economy
04012 CHAU Minh, CONTENSOU François
Profit-Sharing as Tax Saving and Incentive Device
04013 REZZOUK Med
Cartels globaux, riposte américaine. L’ère Empagran ?
2005
05001 VRANCEANU Radu
The Ethical Dimension of Economic Choices
05002 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi
A PCA Factor Repeat Sales Index (1973-2001) to Forecast Apartment Prices in Paris (France)
05003 ALFANDARI Laurent
Improved Approximation of the General Soft-Capacitated Facility Location Problem
05004 JENKINS Alan
Performance Appraisal Research: A Critical Review of Work on “the Social Context and Politics of Appraisal”
05005 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu Socially Efficient Managerial Dishonesty
05006 BOARI Mircea
Biology & Political Science. Foundational Issues of Political Biology
05007 BIBARD Laurent Biologie et politique
05008 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Le financement public du secteur de la défense, une source d'inefficacité ?
2006
06001 CAZAVAN-JENY Anne, JEANJEAN Thomas
Levels of Voluntary Disclosure in IPO prospectuses: An Empirical Analysis
06002 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi
Monte Carlo Simulations versus DCF in Real Estate Portfolio Valuation
06003 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Can Incentives for Research Harm Research? A Business Schools Tale
06004 FOURÇANS André, VRANCEANU Radu
Is the ECB so Special? A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
06005 NAIDITCH Claire, VRANCEANU Radu
Transferts des migrants et offre de travail dans un modèle de signalisation
06006 MOTTIS Nicolas
Bologna: Far from a Model, Just a Process for a While…
06007 LAMBERT Brice
Ambiance Factors, Emotions and Web User Behavior: A Model Integrating and Affective and Symbolical Approach
06008 BATISTA Catia, POTIN Jacques
Stages of Diversification and Capital Accumulation in an Heckscher-Ohlin World, 1975-1995
06009 TARONDEAU Jean-Claude
Strategy and Organization Improving Organizational Learning
06010 TIXIER Daniel
Teaching Management of Market Driven Business Units Using Internet Based Business Games
06011 COEURDACIER Nicolas
Do Trade Costs in Goods Market Lead to Home Bias in Equities?
06012 AVIAT Antonin, COEURDACIER Nicolas
The Geography of Trade in Goods and Asset Holdings
06013 COEURDACIER Nicolas, GUIBAUD Stéphane
International Portfolio Diversification Is Better Than You Think
06014 COEURDACIER Nicolas, GUIBAUD Stéphane
A Dynamic Equilibrium Model of Imperfectly Integrated Financial Markets 06015 DUAN Jin-Chuan, FULOP Andras
Estimating the Structural Credit Risk Model When Equity Prices Are Contaminated by Trading Noises
06016 FULOP Andras
Feedback Effects of Rating Downgrades
06017 LESCOURRET Laurence, ROBERT Christian Y.
Preferencing, Internalization and Inventory Position
06018 BOURGUIGNON Annick, SAULPIC Olivier, ZARLOWSKI Philippe
Management Accounting Change in the Public Sector: A French Case Study and a New Institutionalist Perspective
06019 de BEAUFORT Viviane
One Share – One Vote, le nouveau Saint Graal ?
06020 COEURDACIER Nicolas, MARTIN Philippe
The Geography of Asset Trade and the Euro: Insiders and Outsiders
06021 BESANCENOT Damien, HUYNH Kim, VRANCEANU Radu
The "Read or Write" Dilemma in Academic Production: A European Perspective
2007
07001 NAIDITCH Claire, VRANCEANU Radu
International Remittances and Residents' Labour Supply in a Signaling Model
07002 VIENS G., LEVESQUE K., CHAHWAKILIAN P., EL HASNAOUI A., GAUDILLAT A., NICOL G., CROUZIER C.
Évolution comparée de la consommation de médicaments dans 5 pays européens entre 2000 et 2004 : analyse de 7 classes pharmaco-thérapeutiques
07003 de BEAUFORT Viviane
La création d'entreprise au féminin dans le monde occidental
07004 BOARI Mircea
Rationalizing the Irrational. The Principle of Relative Maximization from Sociobiology to Economics and Its Implications for Ethics
07005 BIBARD Laurent Sexualités et mondialisation
07006 VRANCEANU Radu
The Moral Layer of Contemporary Economics: A Virtue Ethics Perspective
07007 LORINO Philippe
Stylistic Creativity in the Utilization of Management Tools
07008 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi Optimal Holding Period for a Real Estate Portfolio
07009 de BEAUFORT Viviane
One Share - One Vote, the New Holy Graal?
07010 DEMEESTERE René
L'analyse des coûts : public ou privé ?
07011 TIXIER Maud
Appreciation of the Sustainability of the Tourism Industry in Cyprus
07012 LORINO Philippe
Competence-based Competence Management: a Pragmatic and Interpretive Approach. The Case of a Telecommunications Company
07013 LORINO Philippe
Process Based Management and the Central Role of Dialogical Collective Activity in Organizational Learning. The Case of Work Safety in the Building Industry
07014 LORINO Philippe
The Instrumental Genesis of Collective Activity. The Case of an ERP Implementation in a Large Electricity Producer
07015 LORINO Philippe, GEHRKE Ingmar
Coupling Performance Measurement and Collective Activity: The Semiotic Function of Management Systems. A Case Study
07016 SALLEZ Alain
Urbaphobie et désir d'urbain, au péril de la ville
07017 de CARLO Laurence
The Classroom as a Potential Space - Teaching Negotiation through Paradox
07019 ESPOSITO VINZI Vincenzo
Capturing and Treating Unobserved Heterogeneity by Response Based Segmentation in PLS Path Modeling. A Comparison of Alternative Methods by Computational Experiments
07020 CHEVILLON Guillaume, Christine RIFFLART
Physical Market Determinants of the Price of Crude Oil and the Market Premium
07021 CHEVILLON Guillaume
Inference in the Presence of Stochastic and Deterministic Trends
07023 COLSON Aurélien
The Ambassador, between Light and Shade. The Emergence of Secrecy as the Norm of International Negotiation
07024 GOMEZ Marie-Léandre
A Bourdieusian Perspective on Strategizing
07025 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Multiple Equilibria in a Firing Game with Impartial Justice
07026 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Madhi
Is It Possible to Construct Derivatives for the Paris Residential Market?
2008
08001 BATISTA Catia, POTIN Jacques
International Specialization and the Return to Capital, 1976-2000
08002 BESANCENOT Damien, FARIA Joan Ricardo, VRANCEANU Radu Why Business Schools Do So Much Research: a Signaling Explanation
08003 de BEAUFORT Viviane
D’un effet vertueux de l’art. 116 de la loi NRE en matière de RSE ? La problématique est posée à échelle de l’Union européenne
08004 MATHE Hervé
Greater Space Means More Service: Leveraging the Innovative Power of Architecture and Design
08005 MATHE Hervé
Leading in Service Innovation: Three perspectives on Service Value delivery in a European Context
08006 ROMANIUK Katarzyna, VRANCEANU Radu
Asset Prices and Asymmetries in the Fed’s Interest Rate Rule: A Financial Approach
08007 MOTTIS Nicolas, WALTON Peter
Measuring Research Output across Borders - A Comment
08008 NAPPI-CHOULET Ingrid, MAURY Tristan-Pierre
A Spatiotemporal Autoregressive Price Index for the Paris Office Property Market
08009 METIU Anca, OBODARU Otilia
Women’s Professional Identity Formation in the Free/Open Source Software Community
08010 SIBIEUDE Thierry, VIDAL Rodolphe
Le programme « Une grande école : pourquoi pas moi ? ® ». D’une action de responsabilité sociétale de l’ESSEC à la responsabilité sociétale des grandes écoles françaises
08011 SIBIEUDE Thierry, VIDAL Rodolphe
Enjeux et perspectives du sociétariat des groupes mutualistes complexes face aux stratégies de développement à l’échelle groupe : quelques enseignements du cas du groupeMACIF
08012 FOURÇANS André, VRANCEANU Radu
Money in the Inflation Equation: the Euro Area Evidence
08013 CAZAVAN-JENY Anne, JEANJEAN Thomas
Supply and Demand for European Accounting Research. Evidence from EAA Congresses
08014 FAYARD Anne-Laure, METIU Anca
Beyond Orality and Literacy: Letters and Organizational Communication
08015 CAZAVAN-JENY Anne, MISSONIER-PIERA Franck, MARGAINE J.
CEO Compensations in a Stakeholders’ Regime: An Empirical Investigation with French Listed Companies
08016 METIU Anca, FAYARD Anne-Laure Letters and Scientific Communities
08017 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Migratory Policy in Developing Countries: How to Bring Best People Back?
08018 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu
Financial Distress and Bank’s Communication Policy in Crisis Time
08019 AGID Philippe, TARONDEAU Jean-Claude
Les performances des maisons d’Opéra : une explication statistique
2009
09001 POTIN Jacques
The Selection Effect of Two-way Trade in the Melitz Model: An Alternative Approach
09002 NAIDITCH Claire, VRANCEANU Radu Migratory Equilibria with Invested Remittances
09003 BARONI Michel, BARTHELEMY Fabrice, MOKRANE Mahdi A Repeat Sales Index Robust to Small Datasets
09004 NAPPI-CHOULET Ingrid, MAURY Tristan-Pierre
A Spatial and Temporal Autoregressive Local Estimation for the Paris Housing Market
09005 BENCHIMOL Jonathan, FOURÇANS André
Money in a DSGE Framework with an Application to the Euro Zone
09006 VRANCEANU Radu
Four Myths and a Financial Crisis
09007 BESANCENOT Damien, VRANCEANU Radu Banks' Risk Race: A Signaling Explanation
09008 BESANCENOT Damien, HUYNH Kim, VRANCEANU Radu
Desk Rejection in an Academic Publication Market Model with Matching Frictions