Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process of “examining, sorting, categorising, evaluating, comparing, synthesizing and contemplating coded data as well as reviewing raw and recorded data”

(Creswell, 1998, p467). This process was followed during data collection as an early and

ongoing activity, as Maykut (1994) suggests, because this assists to inform further data collection.

Data analysis in qualitative, interpretive research tends to make use of inductive techniques (Hartley, 2004) whereby the researcher analyses data to draw conclusions from the data. In using inductive techniques, categories and patterns, based on themes, concepts and similar features, primarily emerge from the data (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006) when explanations, descriptions and discussions are sorted (Creswell, 1998).

These categories and patterns were coded as the data passed through open, axial and selective coding processes (Creswell, 1998). Open coding was the first coding of data where the data was condensed into preliminary categories or codes Creswell, 1998; Rule & John, 2011); that is, I looked at the data and decided if the data related to Senge’s five disciplines or other themes that influence the five disciplines, such as leadership and culture. The data then moved into axial coding where the codes were organised and linked to main categories (Creswell, 1998; Rule &

John, 2011); that is the data was separated into two main categories – the five disciplines or other. Selective coding was then used to examine previous codes to identify and select data that supports the coding categories developed (Creswell, 1998). The selective coding represented the five disciplines of personal mastery, mental models, building shared vision, team learning and systems thinking, or other categories such as leadership and culture.

“Looking for and analysing discrepant data and negative cases” (Bickman & Rog, 1998, p93) is as important in identifying common themes in order to test proposed conclusions. These discrepancies were considered so as not to solely focus on supporting cases and to identify if the conclusions were more credible than the possible alternatives (Bickman & Rog, 1998; Hartley, 2004; McMillan & Schumacher, 2006).

I was mindful of the above caution throughout data collection and will expand on how this heeding contributed to my data analysis of observations, document analysis, questionnaires, interviews, transect walks and focus groups, which included auto-photography analysis.

Observations

During observations, I took notes of what I was observing in the work environment, for example the way staff went about their work (for office observations), the way they interacted with each other, their actions and behaviours at their work consoles or in meetings, and so forth to “try

understand the patterns of behaviour and culture from the participants’ perspective” (Rule &

John, 2011, p81). Using open coding, I then coded my observations into categories according to the five disciplines – PM (personal mastery), BSV (building shared vision), MM (mental models), TL (team learning) and ST (systems thinking). Identifying the behaviours related to the disciplines was based on the descriptions provided by Senge (1990). Any observations that did not belong in these categories were considered in terms of additional categories, such as displays of trust, concern, care, encouraging participation and taking ownership, thus open and axial coding was employed. The categories of codes were further analysed in the process of selective coding and the categories were examined for further coding, for example some additional categories were narrowed into categories of organisational culture and leadership.

Documentation

I attempted to follow a similar process to the one described above with the research site’s official documentation, company profile, performance appraisals, business and marketing strategy, consulting methodology, policy statements and any other relevant documentation provided, such as reports from surveys conducted by external consultants (for example, communication). I looked for themes relating to the learning disciplines of personal mastery, building shared vision, mental models, team learning and systems thinking and coded these. I also identified additional themes in the company’s documentation relating to their espoused practises and beliefs. This analysis assisted me to identify whether the organisation claimed to be a learning organisation, be it overtly or covertly, and what wording indicated this claim. I was also able to identify information that could be probed during interviews to gain a better understanding of the organisation and its context.

Document analysis was undertaken in phase 1 (2008) and 6 (2012) as the company had reviewed and was in the process of reviewing its documentation after a branding survey and report had taken place. The same process adopted in phase 1 was used in phase 6 to identify themes. I attempted to gauge how the documentation had changed in light of the branding exercise as this provided insight into how the organisation took up the concept of a learning organisation.

Questionnaires

The questionnaires were structured with categories related to the learning disciplines and included a general section that covered information concerning the organisational culture and leadership. “Counting and comparing are standard analytical moves” (Rule & John, 2011, p82)

in case study questionnaires, and as such the questionnaires included a tally for the different categories in order to identify a correlation between the tallies and the learning disciplines.

Responses to the open ended questions were analysed and coded according to themes and categorised. The questionnaires, particularly the open ended questions, were helpful in understanding the context of the case (Rule & John, 2011) and in identifying discrepant data that provided information for further probing during interviews.

Questionnaires that were completed in Phase 6 by staff employed over the entire research period were compared and analysed. This analysis assisted to identify if and how the organisation had changed over the period in terms of its learning characteristics.

Interviews

I found Maykut’s suggestion to conduct data analysis as “an early and ongoing research activity” (Maykut, 1994, p123) helpful as through analysing observations, documents and questionnaires prior to interviewing participants, I was able to pick up on themes (Rule & John, 2011) that needed further probing in the interviews in phase 3 (2008). In phase 6 (2012), additional themes from literature researched were included in the schedule. These themes were over and above those identified in phase 3.

In both phase 3 and 6, interviews were semi-structured and although I had themes/questions that I wanted to discuss, I was able to follow a line of discussion as I felt necessary. These lines of discussion were coded and categorised across all interviews in order to identify further themes or discrepant data that would contribute to my findings.

Focus groups

Focus group discussions were also analysed according to content and themes (Rule & John, 2011). Participants were requested to interpret visual data from auto-photography and group the photographs according to themes. I made notes on their discussions, identifying the meaning that was associated with the visual data. The focus groups were also video recorded. Working in the interpretive paradigm, I was careful about “facilitating and not directing the analysis and interpretation process” as I was keen “to understand the phenomenon under study through the eyes of the participants” (Rule & John, 2011, p84). When participants reached an impasse in their discussion, I referred to a question in Appendix E I identified as being appropriate to stimulate discussion so that the photo could be grouped according to a theme.

Data analysis and research, as with sailing, occur in a certain context. A vessel is not always permitted or able to sail all waters, and the same applies to research.

There are certain limitations that exist which need to be considered before boarding and while aboard the vessel.