Developing an international curriculum

The definition of an international curriculum cited by Hall (2003), adopted by the OECD (1995) and used in this thesis, emphasises that a curriculum must address the needs of local as well as international students. It describes an international curriculum as having

80 an international orientation in content; being aimed at preparing students for performing professionally and socially in an international and multicultural context, and designed for domestic students as well as foreign students. Bonfiglio (1999) concluded that an internationalised curriculum was more than just a collection of courses, but rather a preparatory measure for students as they enter life and work in a global society. Edwards et al. (2003) concluded that the higher education sector has been revising its aims and objectives to incorporate an international dimension into the skills and knowledge development of its students. Edwards et al. (op. cit.) suggested a three-stage typology for a business curriculum: (i) internationalisation; (ii) international awareness, (iii) international competence and international expertise with the purpose of, “seeking to bridge the gap between the aims of a curriculum for internationalisation and a subject curriculum” (2003 p. 183).

Healy (2002) also argued that there was a lack of agreement about the increased importance of internationalisation in higher education. Healy (op. cit.) established that most international education was directed at developing career opportunities for international students so that they can participate in their economy when they return home. However, Healy (op. cit.) argued that scholars, for practical reasons, have sought to find educational policies and practices that can be borrowed or assimilated into their own context. Healy (op. cit.) questioned whether internationalisation results in a shift in curricula content; a view that was later reinforced with the conclusion from Nivesjo et al. (2011) that there was very little or no mention of the curriculum in the internationalisation discourses of university staff in the Higher Education White Paper (BIS, 2011a).

81 Given the strategic importance to UK universities of the recruitment of international students, one of the principal conclusions towards successful outcomes for student mobility was a review of teaching toolkits, in recognition of the curriculum and pedagogic needs of internationally mobile students, as explained by Singh and Doherty (2004, p. 13):

“Teachers need to update their toolkits so that the curriculum and pedagogy they design remains relevant to the needs of mobile students. As competition for the international student market increases in the global university sector, the pressure on teachers to provide relevant quality curriculum and pedagogy is likely to intensify.”

Caddell and Chatterton (2014) published a toolkit to develop and enhance a flexible curriculum. They suggested four key elements for implementing a successful programme: (i) External engagement and Partnerships (ii) Anytime, Anywhere Learning (iii) Entry, Transition, Progression, Exit and Learning Model and (iv) Personalisation and Learner Engagement.

Matherly and Tillman (2005) were able to demonstrate that students studying overseas often experience difficulties in articulating its advantages. Matherly and Tillman (2005, p. 9) suggested that to help students, advisors could ask students about an event that would demonstrate their ability to creatively solve problems by applying familiar concepts to unfamiliar situations. Students should be able to contribute to an ethnically diverse team, be self-confident, yet able to listen and learn from people whose value systems are different. Students should also be able to take personal risks and act independently, be flexible and adaptable to rapidly changing situations. They should also have a basic command of the local language, and be able to use it in practical situations and finally, and of importance for business studies students, imagine, forecast, analyse or address business situations from a different cultural perspective. The conclusion they reached was

82 that an international experience itself has little value for an employer, but is a way forward, with challenges, for job applicants. Matherly and Tillman, 2005 p. 9) suggested that;

“The savvy job seeker must be able to speak about this (international) experience in terms of the transferable skills that he or she developed while abroad and how they can be applied to the workplace. For many students, this can be an enormous challenge.”

Caddell and Chatterton (2014), Ryan and Tilbury (2013) and The HEA (2013) have conducted research on flexible pedagogies as an approach to developing a more empathetic international curriculum designed to ‘generate new thinking and practices’ for an emerging age. Their work includes four flexible learning areas: employer engagement and work-based learning; technology-enhanced learning, including online learning; new thinking in flexible pedagogy; the needs of part-time learning and learners.

3 4.4 Developments in educational marketing

The importance of marketing international education to international students in order to enhance consumer satisfaction and raise perceived quality was highlighted by Russell (2005). A marketing approach has led to improvements in areas such as brochures, web sites, and, more recently, use of popular forms of social media, including Facebook, YouTube, Twitter; blogs within an HEIs overall communications strategy leading to MacGregor (2012, p. 1) quoting the British Council to conclude that:

“Traditional providers may be able to use their strong brands to innovate in different regions of the world where operating environments are more favourable for certain customers, and where conditions allow them to blend learning styles, disciplines and their own strengths. It is possible that this new wave or ‘third generation’ is simply an opportunity for traditional hosts to prosper beyond their own borders.”

83 Russell (op. cit.) stressed the importance of ‘word of mouth’ in the overall communication policy and tactics, a key measure in student satisfaction and decision- making in all areas, including education. The term word of mouth has now been extended to microblogging through Twitter and similar online services as:

“Microblogging is a new type of word-of-mouth communication that combines the real-time and personal influence of traditional (offline) word of mouth with electronic word of mouth's ability to reach large audiences” (Hennig-Thurau (2015, p. 1).

In a survey of 148 colleges and universities in the USA, Reuben (2008) noted that they were beginning to embrace social media as a component of their overall marketing mix. The survey undertaken in July 2008 asked what social media the institutions were using most, how they were using it to reach their target audiences, and which department(s) at the college were responsible for maintaining it. Reuben (op cit.) identified implications for and against using social media, and discussed best practices, recommendations and considerations for higher education marketers. Although reservations have been expressed over the value of social media in reaching an international audience, its contribution was underlined by The University of Cambridge in a report which found that, “85% of our audience was outside the UK” and saw this as way to, “confound expectations. It’s a great opportunity to reset expectations of the university, what it’s for and most importantly who it’s for.” (Jee, 2015, p. 1).

Although ‘word of mouth’ is still one of the most powerful means of communication, changes in information search have taken place with the wider use and international availability of the Internet. Hence the Internet is seen not only as a tool to provide information but also as having the potential for changing user perceptions of institutions

84 although reservations have been expressed on whether academics can be exposed to unfair criticism.