Diary Classification

This current research employed the use of diary as a method of data collection. A structure was devised for the diary and a sample of participants was asked to complete the different elements. Allport (1942) classified three groups of diaries: the intimate journal; the memoir; and the log (or inventory). The intimate journal contains

“uncensored outpourings, the entries being written discontinuously, either daily or at longer intervals of time” Allport (1942:100). The memoir is an “impersonal diary”. It may be written all in one setting and may tell little about the writer. The log records or lists, for example, the writer’s expenditures, illnesses, reading and other aspects.

In conducting this research, the type of diary used does not fit with the three broad types as classified by Allport (1942) but it was designed based on characteristics to be found in each of these to suit the purpose of the research. Elliot (1997) defined this kind of diary as one of the ‘research-driven diaries’ also known as ‘solicited participant diaries’ or

‘solicited diaries’ (Jacelon & Imperio, 2005). Wiseman, Conteh and Matovu (2005) described the solicited diary as a research tool in which daily lives and experiences are being regularly recorded by the participants in the research at the researcher’s request (Kenten, 2010). The design may be tailored to elicit specific information which is often related to the specific research purposes (Elliot, 1997). The research-driven diary or solicited diary can be used as a method of data collection either for quantitative or qualitative analysis. Quantifiable data is more appropriate with the structured diaries while rich qualitative data can be obtained with less structured or open solicited diaries (Elliot, 1997). According to Zimmerman & Wieder (1977), open solicited diaries are a kind of empowering method because the participants play the role of both observer and informant.

4.8.1.1 Advantages of Using Diary Methods

In order to understand an individual in a society, it is necessary to know the particular individual’s mental state in particular societies (Allport, 1942). Allport (1942: 56) pointed out that “acquaintance with particulars is the beginning of all knowledge – scientific or otherwise”. Moreover, he stressed that “psychology needs to concern itself with life as it is lived, with significant total-processes of the sort revealed in consecutive and complete life documents” (Allport, 1942: 56). Blumer (cited in Allport, 1942) defined the human document as “an account of individual experience which reveals the individual’s actions as a human agent and as a participant in social life” (Allport, 1942: viii). The use of human or personal documents in documenting the particulars of live has improved considerably over the years. One of the many reasons psychologists have recourse to personal documents is to study the “complexities of phenomenal consciousness” (Allport, 1942:

37). Diaries, as one type of personal document, provide the field of psychology with “a powerful set of methods for studying various human phenomena, including personality processes, marital and family interaction, physical symptoms, and mental health” (Bolger, Davis, & Rafaeli, 2003: 582). The essential benefit of diary methods is that they capture the practices and emotional experiences of participants ’ daily life in their natural and spontaneous context which is not possible using traditional designs (Bolger et al., 2003;

Kenten, 2010; Radcliffe, 2013). Furthermore, the use of diaries is a “more ecologically valid method” because the participants are located in their natural environment, unlike other research methods such as in the setting of a researcher-led interview (Farrelly, 2000: 13).

Plummer (cited in Andy, 2006: 36) argued that a “diary is the document of life par excellence, chronicling as it does the immediately contemporaneous flow of public and private events that are significant to the diarist. The word ‘contemporary’ is crucial here, for each diary entry, unlike life histories is sedimented into a particular moment in time”.

Thus, diary studies can provide a sense of ‘immediacy’ which allow current events to be recalled in sufficient detail in order to provide new insights into complex phenomena (Poppleton et al., 2008; Radcliffe, 2013). Moreover, diaries are written “under the

immediate influence of experience, and for this reason is particularly effective in capturing changes of mood” (Allport, 1942: 96).

Memory errors or trying to recall past events can be minimized by using solicited diaries (Kenten, 2010). For instance, a problem could appear when participants ‘self-censor’ or cannot recall accurately when the research is conducted using a traditional method such as interview. Thus, as mentioned by Elliot (1997: 4) “there is a perception at least that diaries are less subject to the vagaries of memory” because they enable the possibility of documenting the present. In addition, Corti (1993) also argued that diaries which record immediate events are more reliable for phenomena which are difficult to be recalled or are easily forgotten rather than using the traditional interview method.

Events which are recorded in a diary over a few days or longer offer chronological aspects that help to highlight important issues either for the participants or those requested by the researcher for the participants to focus on in certain areas (Kenten, 2010). A diary method offers the researcher an understanding of how the participants perceive their surrounding events and provides a link between the public and the private domain. In other words, it provides the researcher with an insight into the participants ’ lives (Kenten, 2010). Moreover, the researcher could explore the participants ’ thoughts and feelings, and also understand a phenomenon without having to be present with the participants at times or events of interest to the researcher (Farrelly, 2000). Diaries are also appropriate to be used in research that needs to capture sensitive data. Meth (cited in Kenten, 2010) used diaries to explore women’s fear in violent contexts which was quite difficult to encapsulate with other methods. Through this research on women’s fear, it was found that participants were able to present their own experiences and used diaries as a space for reflections.

Diary method is also known as a tool for organisational learning and intervention (Plowman, 2010). This method gives access to the participants’ experiences over time and generates large amounts of information which usually takes hours of interviewing.

Furthermore, a qualitative diary also includes discussion as well as writing (Plowman,

2010). Thus, Symon (cited in Plowman, 2010) emphasizes the importance of the qualitative diary method for researching internal processes and practices in organisations.

Plowman (2010) conducted a ‘diary project’ to show how an application of the qualitative diary method reveals the gendered nature of an organisation. Plowman’s project was conducted by case-study in which she was addressing wider questions about gender, change, and organisation. The staff and managers of the company were given diaries to record their individual self-reflection about the workplace daily events. Through her diary-project, Plowman revealed what goes on in the unofficial sphere of the organisation which usually remained undiscovered. This shows the benefits of qualitative diaries in uncovering the internal workings of organisations.

4.8.1.2 Diary as a Research Method in Work-Life Interface

Extensive research has been conducted in the area of work-life balance. However, numerous criticisms have been raised on methodological issues in previous research in that particular area (Radcliffe, 2013). Some of these issues are concerned with “over-reliance on single source self-report survey data”, “a lack of triangulation” and

“overemphasis on the individual level of analysis” (Radcliffe, 2013: 164). Casper et al.

(2007) in their research on these issues found that qualitative methods of data collection had been used infrequently in this area. They suggested that, in orde r to improve the theory development in this particular area, qualitative methods should be used widely. In addition, while there have been calls for more longitudinal studies, there have also been suggestions that the use of diary studies is a more strategic way forward for work-life research (Frone et al., 1992; Jones & Fletcher, 1996).

However, most diaries used in previous work-life research have been quantitative diaries (Radcliffe, 2013). These diaries are similar to surveys which request participants to complete them at the end of each day. Although quantitative diaries are useful in capturing the dynamic nature of work and family roles, they may overlook other factors that are also important in managing daily work-life balance and may also neglect other valuable insights that participants may have to offer. This is due to the self-report scales

in which each consists of a small number of items that focuses upon certain pre-defined factors only (Radcliffe, 2013).

A study by Poppleton et al. (2008) is one of the few which used qualitative diaries in this research area. Diaries were used to collect data from participants in two different organisations. The purpose was to explore the frequency of nonwork-to-work facilitation, conflict, and spillover in the two organisations. It was also intended to find out how experiences were shaped by the different organisational contexts. Poppleton et al. (2008) gained valuable insights into how nonwork-to-work relationships were shaped by context through the employment of qualitative diaries as the data collection method.

Radcliffe (2013) explores how couples managed their work-life balance on a daily basis by allowing the researcher access to rich episodic data through the use of qualitative diary methods followed by a semi-structured interview. Although the use of the qualitative diary method can entail numerous challenges in exploring the work-life interface, she argues that the benefits outweigh the problems. Radcliffe (2013) suggests that qualitative diaries are extremely useful tools which should be considered by researchers looking to add new and valuable contributions to the existing management literature on work-life balance and especially on work and family roles.

4.8.1.3 Diary Methods Limitations

Like other methods, diaries also are not without limitations. Keeping a diary requires the participants’ time commitment and their willingness to complete the diary as requested by the researcher (Kenten, 2010). However, the primary concern is the issue of fatigue because participants may become tired in recording the entries as the diary period lengthens. This may lead to the participants to becoming thorough in completing their diaries. In addition, there is the question of how long diaries should be maintained by the participants (Wiseman et al., 2005). Farrelly (2000) has recommended that the keeping of a diary for a research project should not exceed one month.

Marino et al. (cited in Farrelly, 2000) identified and summarized five potential shortcomings on the use of diaries as a tool for research method. These are: “(i) time needed to train the diary keepers, (ii) variable response rates, (iii) complexity of data -collection and analysis, (iv) the conditioning and increasing fatigue of the diary-keepers;

and (v) limitations specifically related to the topic under study” (Farrelly, 2000: 12).

Nevertheless, the limitations do not apply only to diary methods but are evident in other tools used in qualitative data collection.

In order to minimise such potential limitations, a researcher can employ appropriate strategies. For instance, a deficient data set may appear when there are incomplete or unclear diary entries. The problem then is ‘recall error’ if participants are contacted by the researcher to obtain or clarify the entries as they would then be relying on memory (Farrelly, 2000). Thus, effective training for the participants in the diary entry procedure makes it more likely that the diary procedures will be effectively and correctly followed (Farrelly, 2000). Researchers who employ a self-administered questionnaire as a data collection tool also face a similar problem of missing or incorrect data if the questionnaire is not properly designed. Therefore, a diary with a well-designed structure helps researchers avoid or limit the problems of having incomplete or incorrect entries.

For this research, three open questions were included in the diary entry (see Appendix 3).

The questions were constructed to generate material that would contribute to an understanding of the work-life experiences of women academics. As discussed in the literature review chapter, work-life interface refers to that of two main domains, the work domain and the family/ life domain. Thus, the questions in the diary entry seek to find out significant events, as perceived by the participants, which happen in their daily life, the interference of work tasks in the family domain or vice versa; and their feelings when experiencing these events. The questions were deliberately ‘open’ to balance a small degree of direction with the scope for each participant to decide what was important or significant for her. Thus, the design of the diary entry was premised on the aims of this research and so helped to align the participants ’ responses with these aims.