Are there any differences in the environmental orientation of visitors to

Previous tourism studies using the NEP scale found that most demographic characteristics did not have an influence on environmental attitudes (Luck, 2000; Uysal et ah, 1994). This sub-section sets out to establish if this is also the case in a different location and with a different sample population. This information is useh.il for a number of reasons. Firstly, it adds to the existing literature on the environmental/ecological orientation of rural tourists of which there are few studies. Secondly, identifying or segmenting types of visitors based on their demographic characteristics and ecological orientations can have practical relevance in the marketing of a region. It may help to identify the characteristics of visitors with the highest pro-environmental attitudes and therefore those most likely to respond to the development of the region as an environmentally friendly tourism destination.

It is perhaps appropriate to start this section by considering the country of permanent residence of visitors to Dumfries & Galloway (Table 5.4). Studies have revealed differences in the environmental orientation of tourists from different countries. Lück (2000), for example, found that German visitors to New Zealand had greater endorsement of the NEP in comparison to American visitors. Asian visitors were found to have the lowest endorsement of the NEP although differences between the separate nationalities were reported as slight. By determining the ecological attitudes of visitors from different countries one can create a general picture of how different nationalities might behave while in the study region. Again the practical outcome of this analysis may help to target marketing to those specific countries with ecocentric residents who may be attracted to Dumfries & Galloway as an ecotourism or environmentally friendly tourism destination. In the sample of 107 visitors to Dumfries & Galloway only 4.7% (five visitors) were from outside the UK, which is

similar in proportion to official statistics for Dumfries & Galloway (VisitScotland, 2004a), but means that generalising about mean NEP values based on such a small sample should be treated with some caution.

Table 5.4 Countiy of origin and comparison of mean NEP scores

One way ANOVA

N Mean NEP SD F d f P Scotland 29 3.83 0.62 1.091 8 0.376 England 69 4.01 0.53 Wales 2 4.39 0.25 Noithern Ireland 2 3.86 0.30 Germany 1 3.71 - Denmark 1 3.21 - Switzerland 1 4.00 - Netherlands 1 2.93 - New Zealand 1 3.79 - Total 107 3.94 0.55

Although the sample of visitors from overseas, Wales and Northern Ireland is small the results indicate that there is no significant difference in pro-ecological orientation. Each of the four factors that emerged from the factor analysis were also tested against the country of visitor origin and no statistically significant differences were evident.^^ While the results demonstrate that the Welsh visitors have the greatest endorsement of the NEP only two visitors were tested. The most reliable figures from this table are those for Scottish and English visitors. It would appear that English residents have greater ecocentric views than Scottish residents although differences are not significant. Since English residents form the greatest proportion of all visitors to Dumfries & Galloway it is satisfying to note their high pro- ecological attitudes.

Country of residence seems to provide no significant differences in the ecological orientations of visitors and nor does trip type. Trip type is used to refer to whether visitors came to the region for a holiday, day trip, to visit friends or relatives, for

One-Way ANOVA: Limits to growth (F = 1.250, df=8, p = 0.278); Anti-anthropocentrism (F == 1.273, df=8, p = 0.267); The fragility of nature’s balance (F = 0.687, dU8, p = 0.702); Rejection of exemptionalism (F 1.545, df=8, p = 0.152).

business or any other reasons. The greatest number of participants were in the region for a holiday (72) and these tourists recorded the second greatest pro-ecological attitudes (mean EP = 3.94) after those visiting friends or relatives (8 participants)

(mean NEP = 4.09). Day trippers (23) recorded a slightly lower NEP score than the holidaymakers, but the lowest NEP score was held by one respondent who was in the region for ‘other’ purposes (mean NEP ^ 3.64). Business visitors, of which there were only three groups, recorded a mean NEP score of 3.74 which is below average. No statieally significant differences were found when testing trip type against overall mean NEP score or when tested against the foin individual facets.

Although no significant differences were found in terms of ecological orientation and trip type, those visiting friends and relatives held the highest pro-ecological attitudes (mean = 4.09). Again this is welcome news for stakeholders promoting sustainable development of rural tourism in Dumfries & Galloway since those visiting friends and relatives (VFRs) are the second most numerous type of tourist the region receives (VisitScotland, 2004a). Holidaymakers are the most numerous type of tourist and they also held strong pro-ecological views, although the most frequent type of visitor are day-trippers (21 million trips in 2002/03) who recorded a below average, but still positive, NEP score. Although some research indicates that a day trip to the countryside in the UK usually involves a round trip of 41 miles (The Countryside Agency et al., 2004) some of the interviewees travelled significantly longer distances to visit Dumfries & Galloway. For example, one couple from Preston in Lancashire (North West England) endured a 240 mile round trip to visit Caerlaverock National Nature Resei*ve and another interviewee participant travelled from Glenrothes in Fife (260 mile round trip). He was also visiting Caerlaverock. While this demonstrates the significant pulling power of this particular nature- focused attraetion it also indicates that some day-trippers will create six times as much CO2 as the average day-tripper (average day tripper = 41 miles round trip =15

kg CO]).^^ Therefore despite having pro-ecological views, day-trippers can have a significant impact on the environment. Other visitors also use private cars to get to and travel around the region. Indeed, 96.3% of questionnaire respondents used a hired or private car to get to Dumfries & Galloway. Clearly this is an extremely high

proportion and represents a significant challenge to the development of the region as an environmentally friendly destination. Part of this high private transport usage can be attributed to the poor public transport links throughout the region, the remoteness of some attractions and the flexibility that a car gives. Some interviewees, who had used private transport to reach the region, recognised that using personal transport was not the most environmentally friendly way of getting to a destination but noted few alternatives. One intemewee from Yorkshire summed up the problem:

“I’ve used my car to get here and that’s not particularly environmentally friendly and the problem with this area is that you can’t actually get here using public transport, even if you use buses - they don’t go where you want to go. It needs more train seiwices I would think”

This study also compared the ecological orientations of visitors and party composition (who visitors were travelling with) in order to determine if different party compositions result in different pro-ecological attitudes. Most visitors sampled were travelling with their family/friends (49 groups) and these visitors recorded a below sample average NEP score of 3.93 although the difference in mean NEP values across all different types of groups is not statistically significant. A similar proportion of sampled groups represented those travelling with a partner (48 couples). This segment displayed the highest pro-ecological views with an above average overall NEP score of 3.98. Given that VisitScotland Dumfries & Galloway view the couples segment as a key market, as evidenced through official tourism literature (see Plate 5.1), it would appear that VisitScotland are unwittingly attracting those visitors displaying the greatest pro-ecological attitudes.

The lowest NEP scores were expressed by those travelling alone (mean NEP = 3.81). This segment of the sample represented only ten people. Analysis of party composition across the four sub-scales to emerge also revealed no statistically significant differences.

(a) (b)

DumfrieSïGalloway

savour the

local flavours

{Source: (a) Front cover of the 2004 where to stay brochure, (b) Page 7 of the 2004 where to stay

brochure, (c) Page 32 of the 2004 see & do brochure.)

Plate 5.1 Images o f couples dom inate the 2004 prom otional brochures

published by VisitScotland Dumfries & Galloway

Another demographic variable tested for differences in environmental orientation is gender. Some studies have stated that no firm conclusions can be drawn about the effects of gender on concern about general environmental issues (Hines et al., 1987; Mohai, 1992; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980b), whilst other research has noted that females expressed significantly higher NEP environmental attitudes than males (Arcury, 1990; Blaikie, 1992). Attitudes are mirrored by behaviour in that the majority of studies show that females tend to participate more in pro-environmental behaviour than males (Zelezny et al., 2000). One popular theory for explaining these differences is socialisation theory which suggests that “Females across cultures are socialised to be more expressive, to have a stronger ‘ethic of care’, and to be more

interdependent, compassionate, nurturing, cooperative, and helpful in care-giving roles” (Zelezny et al., 2000: 445). While this theory might be illuminating in explaining some gender differences with regards to environmental orientation, in terms of gender and tourism in Dumfries & Galloway, most visitors travel with their partner or with their family which could, in theory, counter-balance any positive caring roles towards the environment that females are thought to have. This research shows that over half of visitors in the sample were female (60%) and these participants express higher pro-ecological opinions (mean EP = 3.99) than males

(3.86). However the differences in mean NEP score, and across the four sub-scales, were not statistically significant. This finding therefore suggests that both genders appear to have statistically similar ecological attitudes.

A statistically significant difference was however found between pro-ecological orientation and age characteristics of visitors to Dumfries & Galloway (Table 5.5). Previous research has found age to be a consistent predictor of environmental concern with younger people more environmentally concerned than older people (Buttel, 1979; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980a). However, the findings below show the reverse in that older visitors to the region express the highest pro-ecological attitudes and the younger cohort expressed the least pro-ecological attitu d es.T h is suggests that as one gets older the more likely one is to be concerned, or at least aware of environmental issues.

Table 5.5 Visitor age and mean NEP score

Age N Mean NEP SD One way ANOVA F d f p

<30 10 3.51 0.53 2.703 3 0.04

30-39 7 3.87 0.56

4 0- 54 36 3.94 0.54

>55 54 4.03 0.54

Total 107 3.94 0.55

A statistically significant positive correlation was found between age and mean NEP score when tested using Spearman’s rho (Correlation Coefficient = 0.203). Spearman's rho is a rank-order correlation coefficient which measures association at the ordinal level. This is a nonparametric version of the Pearson correlation based on the ranks of the data rather than the actual values.

This reversal from the norm may be partly due to the low number of visitors under 40 years old. Increasing the sample size of younger visitors could potentially increase the mean NEP score. However another possible explanation for this finding might come from contemplating the epoch in which these visitors were born and brought up. This is sometimes called the ‘cohort effect’ (Buttel, 1979) where people of an analogous age that have experienced similar historical and economic conditions have the same pattern of attitudes toward certain issues and a different reaction than respondents of another age-cohort with different social and economic experiences. Visitors who are around 55 years old would have been teenagers or in their early twenties during the environmental movement of the 1960s and this may have had a lasting influence on their environmental attitudes. In addition, older visitors have had longer exposure to environmental problems and may have witnessed some significant changes locally and globally in their lifetime. Merging seasons, increased frequency of flooding, increased road congestion and global ice-cap melting may have influenced their enviromnental orientation.

The age findings above again provide good news for Dumfries & Galloway tourism. Official statistics inform us that 54% of all visitors to Dumfries & Galloway are over 45 years old (VisitScotland, 2003) and it is these visitors who demonstrate the highest pro-ecological attitudes.

Some research has reported a correlation between pro-environmental attitudes and level of education: those with higher qualifications express higher concern for the environment (Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980a). In the sample of visitors to Dumfries & Galloway no significant correlation or difference in mean NEP values was found between these variables, however it was interesting to find that visitors with vocational or trade qualifications expressed the highest pro-ecological attitudes and those with no formal qualifications expressed the least pro-ecological views."^^ It should be noted that only two people in the sample had vocational or trade qualifications and when these cases were omitted from the analysis the differences were still insignificant. There was however a statistical difference between the

One-Way ANOVA: educational qualifications and mean NEP score; no qualifications (N = 22, mean NEP = 3.83); liigh-school qualifications (N = 22, mean NEP = 3.82); vocational/trade qualifications (N = 2, mean NEP = 4.25); degree/diploma (N = 45, mean NEP = 3.99); postgraduate degree (N ^ 16, mean NEP = 4.10) (F = 1.056, df=4, p = 0.382).

rejection of exemptionalism facet and education. Statistical testing revealed that those with postgraduate degrees (15% of the sample) held stronger pro-ecological views than visitors with no qualifications with regards to rejection of exemptionalism.'^^ This could suggest that more educated visitors strongly acknowledge the limitations of humans to control and master nature or perhaps they just understood the questions relating to this facet better.

To summarise, this section has presented findings assessing the ecological orientation of visitors and demographic profiles. The research has shown that there are no statistically significant differences between overall mean NEP scores and visitor origin, trip type, party composition, gender and level of education. There was a significant difference in the age of the respondent and overall mean NEP score however contrary to findings elsewhere it is suggested that older visitors to Dumfries & Galloway express higher pro-ecological attitudes than younger visitors. Another statistically significant difference has also been revealed in relation to education and the rejection of exemptionalism.

Despite finding little evidence to suggest that demographics play an important role in ecological attitudes, and therefore confirming findings from other studies in different locations (Lück, 2000; Uysal et al., 1994), one can still construct a picture of visitors who express the greatest pro-ecological attitudes which may be useful for marketing or promotion. Discounting Welsh visitors, based on only two questionnaire participants, visitors with the most pro-ecological views were from England, were over 55 and female. These visitors tend to be in the region with their partner or family/friends with the purpose of visiting friends or relatives.

5.5 Are there any differences in the environmental orientation of visitors to Dumfries & Galloway in relation to accommodation choice?

Having assessed demographic influences the findings now turn to the type of accommodation used by visitors. Identifying the types of accommodation which

One-Way ANOVA test revealed a significant difference between age and the rejection of exemptionalism facet (F == 2.720, df=4, p = 0.034). The Tukey USD procedure (Post Hoc test) revealed that visitors with a postgraduate degree differed from those with no qualification (p = 0.049).

visitors use and determining whether ecological attitudes of respective users differ may well be useful as a guide for establishing which forms of accommodation are most likely to be used by those with high pro-ecological attitudes. Inclusion in one of the tourism industry’s environmental schemes for accommodation may pay dividends for accommodation providers if it can be shown that customers are concerned about environmental matters. Kaae (2001) found that tourists staying in boats and those camping were less interested in sustaining the ecological diversity of flora and fauna in comparison to those using other forms of accommodation, although he offers no explanation of why this might be the case. Visitors conveying higher pro-environmental attitudes tended to rent holiday homes. Although Kaae (2001) did not use the NEP scale in measuring environmental orientation his research addressed attitudes towards sustainable tourism principles which is more akin to a pro-ecological philosophy as opposed to an anthropocentric worldview. However, it is recognised that accommodation choice is likely to be influenced by numerous other factors such as cost, availability, visitor needs and location, and is unlikely to be exclusively based on the environmental performance of the accommodation provider.

Before we assess whether pro-ecological visitors can be identified from their choice of accommodation it is worthwhile establishing the environmental credentials of the accommodation providers, an issue which is discussed more fully in Chapter Six. It is important to determine if there are certain types of accommodation that are managed in a pro-ecological or sustainable manner so that visitors have this choice. There are a small number of tourism accommodation providers in the region who are members of the Green Tourism Business Scheme (13 businesses in total) and other environmental accreditation schemes (e.g. David Bellamy Conservation Awards - 10 caravan/camp site businesses in the region with this award) but not all these enterprises advertise their commitment to environmental management and reducing impacts. The type of accommodation with the greatest capacity in the region, caravan parks, also appears to be the most pro-ecological in their management as indicated by the David Bellamy awards. In terms of engagement in the GTBS there are more self- catering enterprises (4 in total) managing their business sustainably than any other type of accommodation although overall participation is low. Perhaps one reason

why many caravan parks and some self-catering enterprises have adopted environmental management practices is to gain competitive advantage and differentiate their product from the relatively large number of these forms of accommodation in the study region. On the other hand, business managers may simply have a pro-ecological approach to operating their business.

Given that the uptake of the Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS) is low amongst accommodation providers in the region it was surprising to find that almost 16% of all visitors had heard of the GTBS. A high percentage of questionnaire respondents (68%) said they would choose enviromnentally friendly accommodation over less sustainably managed lodgings, even if it was slightly more expensive, but were unsure of where they could find environmental information about accommodation providers. In order to generate interest from these visitors it is clear that accommodation providers need to advertise their allegiance to environmental management or possibly join one of the accreditation schemes that promote enviromnentally managed accommodation.

Returning to ecological attitudes and accommodation choice, the results indicate that visitors utilising self-catering accommodation express the highest pro-ecological attitudes and those camping held the least pro-ecological views (Table 5.6). This is remarkably similar to Kaae’s (2001) findings, although unlike his study there were no statistically significant differences in overall mean NEP scores or across the four sub-scales. The lower score for campers may be explained by firstly the country of origin of one camper (The Netherlands) who recorded a low total NEP score (41, see Figure 5.2 above), secondly most campers are male (67%) who also record lower than average total NEP scores, thirdly a high proportion of campers (83%) were not members of any environmental/conservation organisation which can be an indicator of pro-ecological commitment. By comparison users of self-catering accommodation tend to be female (71%) who express higher than average pro-ecological attitudes and are members of environmental/conservation organisations (71%). Age and education does not appear to be significant with regards to accommodation choice. Visitors staying in hotels and caravans or motorhomes expressed lower than average, but still pro-, ecological attitudes, although the differences are extremely small and