As western European nations tried to recover from the war, new nations in eastern Europe built new governments. Instability and cultural tensions in eastern Europe had led to World War I. These problems had not disappeared with the end of the war. They reappeared in new political conflicts among nations that had little experience with democracy. In addition, these nations suffered severe economic problems. The breakup of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires disrupted old trading patterns. Policies of economic nationalism further weakened eastern European economies. Several of the new governments formed in eastern and southeastern Europe after World War I angered the land-owning classes by breaking up some estates owned by the old aristocracy and redistributing the land to peasants. However, despite cultural, eco- nomic, and political problems, many of the new nations kept democratic governments. Postwar Austria was a small, poor nation. Many Austrians wanted to unite with Germany, but peace treaties prohibited the union. Conflicts between socialists and conservatives weakened efforts to create a democracy. A third of Austria’s population
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Drawing Inferences Why would Michael Collins regard the failed Easter Rising as a victory for the Irish people?
Northern Ireland
The division of Ireland in 1922 did little to resolve ten- sions between pro-British Protestants and nationalist Catholics in Northern Ire- land. Conflict grew in the late 1960s, when civil rights groups demanded voting reforms to eliminate discrim- ination against Catholics. Ongoing violence caused Great Britain to impose direct rule over Northern Ireland in 1972, but the shooting and bombing con- tinued. In 1998 the British agreed to let Northern Ireland govern itself. Despite the 1998 peace accord, political unrest continues. What issue led to increased violence in Northern Ireland during the 1960s and after?
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lived in Vienna. They struggled for control against the rest of the country’s people, who saw the nation’s needs differently. Opposing groups created private armies, leading many people to desire authoritarian rule. Austria gradually became less democratic. Hungary became a republic in November 1918. In March 1919, Béla Kun, a Hun- garian communist, overthrew the weak republic. Kun had embraced communism while in Russia during the war. Now he tried to establish a system modeled on Russia’s new government. He nationalized the land, which made many Hungarians angry. He also failed to distribute food to the people. When Russia did not provide promised assistance, Kun’s government fell.
Admiral Miklós Horthy, a member of the military class, then ruled Hungary. He found postwar reconstruction very difficult. Parts of Hungary’s prewar empire had been given to Austria, Italy, Poland, and Romania. The new boundaries cut off factories from supplies and markets. During the Great Depression, Hungary sought economic help from the League of Nations, and then from Germany and Italy.
Hungary found itself with less and less control over its destiny. Poland was located between Germany and Russia. Faced with serious economic troubles, Poland had little chance at becoming a democracy. Despite the new Polish democratic constitution, many groups bitterly opposed the government. High German tariffs crippled the Polish economy. The government became more and more unstable. In 1926 Marshal Józef Pilsudski (peel·SOOT·skee) installed a military dictatorship. By
that time Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia had all replaced their democratic governments with conservative military dictatorships or monarchies.
READING CHECK: Analyzing Information What role did geography play in the problems that eastern European nations faced?
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SECTION 3REVIEW
SECTION 3REVIEW
1. Defineand explain the significance: general strike
nationalization
2. Identifyand explain the significance: Maginot Line Locarno Pact Popular Front Léon Blum Ramsay MacDonald Easter Rising Sinn Fein
Irish Republican Army
3. Analyzing InformationCopy the chart below. Use it to explain the prob- lems each nation faced after World War I.
4.
a. What problems did France and Great Britain face during the years following World War I?
b. Why did some new European govern- ments survive and others fail during the 1920s?
5.
Supporting a Point of ViewImagine you are a laborer in Paris in 1934. Write a broadsheet that explains why you want people to strike.
Consider:
• France’s economic troubles during the Great Depression
• political threats to stability keyword: SP3 HP28 Great Britain France Austria Hungary Poland Country Problems
Soldier-statesman Józef Pilsudski ruled Poland with an iron hand.
4
4
How did Benito Mussolini transform Italy into a fascist state? Why did the Weimar Republic fail? How did Adolf Hitler become an important figure in Germany?
How did the Nazis use power in Germany? fascism corporatist state Benito Mussolini Black Shirts Adolf Hitler Nazi Party Third Reich Rome-Berlin Axis
Fascist Dictatorships
in Italy and Germany
Fascist and pro-Nazi groups still exist in Germany, the United States, and other nations today. Many people oppose these groups, and keep track of their activities.
Use or other
current event sources to learn more about opposi- tion to such hate groups. Record your findings in your journal.
The Story Continues After World War I, high unemployment and economic problems helped to pave the way for the rise of totalitarian dictatorships. In Italy, Benito Mussolini played upon his country’s problems to gain power, becoming the first of Europe’s fascist leaders. One writer compared Mussolini to Napoleon: “. . . like Napoleon, he [Mussolini] could strike fear into men twice his size with a direct glance from those astonishing eyes.”