ENSURING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Chilisa and Preece (2005) and De Vos, et al. (2011) identify four standard criteria for ensuring reliability and validity in qualitative studies. The criteria regarding credibility or authenticity, also refers to internal validity, transferability or external validity, dependability or reliability and conformity or objectivity. The four criteria were used in ensuring reliability and validity of data

collected was adhered to, for this study. The two main methods of data collection, interviews and observations were triangulated for their reliability and validity with analysis of documents. 4.8.1 Credibility and Trustworthiness in Observations

While field-notes were considered a written form of data collected through observations, the researcher ensured that the data collected were accurately interpreted and analysed to capture the true essence of what was seen and felt. Observations through field-notes were recorded immediately after the events while they were still fresh in the minds of the researcher. The observations were divided into main sub-themes:

• Observable and tangible items or pieces of equipment were easier to observe. If chairs were seen in the male centres’ classroom, obviously it was easier to observe that these were older in comparison to the furniture seen in the female centre. If walls were clean and newly- painted here and in the other centre, walls were dirty, unclean and with old worn-out paint, comparison was easier.

• The unobservable behaviour, conduct, mannerisms, demeanour, etiquette and composure were a bit more complex to interpret without one being either biased, exaggerating, underreporting or being judgmental. However, the researcher was cautious of that.

After the lapse of a week, the fieldworker and the researcher went back to their notes to check if what they captured earlier could still be interpreted as it was originally captured. The team was then able to weed out what was called exaggeration of ideas to validate and put emphasis on issues they both felt needed attention, or to reformulate some of their field-notes and link them meaningfully to perceptions reflected, and attach notes with interpretations of the interviews and/or their own understanding and own interpretations. It was this time-lapse period where the biases were significantly eliminated because every emotion, feeling, sentiment, passion, excitement and sensation had to be accounted for, in terms of values, attitudes, perceptions and facts they represented. That technique was found to be effective and enhanced the validity and reliability of the observations and field-notes. Thus the researcher could conclude that observations and field-notes which were considered redundant and out of context were reviewed, and eliminated.

Two weeks later, the researcher processed the field-notes again. The idea was to look back and assess whether what was recorded earlier still made sense or could be interpreted differently.

More information and expression of emotions and perceptions were revealed later as the researcher revisited the notes. In summary, the field-notes and observations were checked and reviewed three times to eliminate unwarranted biases, misinterpretations, over-representations, exaggerations and or over-interpretations and redundancies or any form of unsubstantiated judgments.

Conformability or objectivity is an important characteristic of a qualitative researcher, according to Savin-Baden and Major (2013). In order to be objective with data, researchers are advised to exercise reflection and reflexivity in handling the fieldwork during and after data collection. The qualitative researcher should not only engage in reflection but also move beyond reflection to reflexivity. While prejudices cannot be eliminated completely in any human encounter, the reflection and reflexivity exercised by the researcher in the process of this study, assures readers of verified, reliable, authentic and valid observations.

4.8.2 Dependability and Verification of Interviews

The digital tape recorder was used in interviews. That ensured validity of interviews because while the researcher recorded them in her field-notes, they were cross-checked with transcriptions from the recorder, and where there were doubts, the tapes were re-played to verify statements made. From the triangulation of interview notes and recorded transcripts, the researcher ensured reliability and validity of the interviews. Value was added to the quality of the data because the researcher and the field-worker shared notes during data collection. In minimising distortions, on a few occasions, the researcher consulted with the field-worker for her views on some statements made to assess if interpretations of meanings and perceptions were understood in the same way.

Focus group interviews were gatherings where the researcher conducted the interviews and the fieldworker took notes, while the recorder was also used. From the three sources, data could be validated and reliability ensured. Telephone interviews with three ex-offenders were also recorded and later transcribed. Where items of data were not clearly understood, the retrieval from the recorder was able to resolve queries arising from the discussion between the researcher and her field-worker. Participants in the telephone interviews were three ex-convicts who had studied during their incarceration. At the time of the interviews, they had been released and had resumed their lives as free individuals.

People’s feelings, perceptions and interpretations can vary every day depending on their moods. However, that does not change the fact that they are credible sources of information gathered on a particular day. Credibility or authenticity of their information can be verified and tested using the same people on another day. For this study, it was not possible to go back to the interviewees to verify the authenticity or credibility of their information, but most of what the inmates said during the interviews can easily be verifiable with previous studies and in chapters 2 and 3 of this study. For these reasons, this study is fully cognisant of the reliability and validity of the interviews held with the participants. The other characteristics mentioned to ensure reliability and validity of field-work data are dependability or reliability. This relates to whether the data could be trusted and consistent. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) provide synonymous words such as consistency and trustworthiness. Most of the accounts reported in chapter 5 and 6 were direct verbatim interviews made with them and their stories were quite revealing, consistent and could be trusted as authentic. The stories could be corroborated with the information from other inmates in other centres.

4.8.3 Transferability or validity

De Vos, et al. (2011: 420) give the advantages of designing a study in which multiple cases, multiple informants or more than one data-gathering method are used and how they can greatly strengthen the study’s usefulness for other settings. A multiple case study of three correctional centres for male, female and youth supplied a broad range of perceptions that can be applied and be transferred to other settings. Most of the stories of inmates that are recorded and reported verbatim represent the majority of offenders in South African correctional centres, and as such data can be transferable and can be validated in other studies. However, while this study cannot make any generalisations from its findings, the researcher can claim that some findings from this research have been replicated elsewhere in the world in general, and in South Africa in particular; the study has therefore contributed to and validated some of the contemporary debates in the correctional education discourse.

4.8.4 Triangulation of Methods

Data from the one-on-one interviews conducted by the researchers and interviews held with two focus groups were triangulated and checked against observations and field-notes, by identifying common patterns, codes and themes that emanated during the field-work. Observations were also

triangulated with interviews to question and confirm data. From what was observed and heard, the triangulation was easier to do through comparison of information from different documents and literature. Document analysis of correctional services reports like strategic planning and annual reports ranging from 2001 to 2012 triangulated the data collected from field-work through interviews and observations. The researcher was able to note some common issues. Some contradictions were picked up with some reports like some statistics with the National Youth Development Agency (NYDA) reports and the National Institute for Crime Prevention and the Reintegration of Offenders (NICRO) reports. While reports cannot always be the same in terms of statistical figures and factual details, where significant contradictions existed, the researcher was able to indicate that in her literature overview in Chapter 3. The DCS website news, recent newspaper articles and some identified and reviewed literature were analysed to cross-check most of the observations, interviews, transcriptions from the recorder and field- notes. These analyses were aimed at triangulating and ensuring reliability and validity of data. Significantly, triangulation was meant to minimise biases by the researcher.

4.8.5 Negative Case Analysis

Leedy and Ormrod (2005: 100) advised on validity of data in qualitative research. One way of doing that is through negative case analysis where, the researcher “actively looks for cases that contradict existing hypotheses [or assumptions], then continually revises his or her explanation or theory until all cases have been accounted for.”

Two female-inmates who came from a different female centre in another province mentioned that their previous female centre was better resourced than where the study was conducted. This indicates that while transferability of results could be appropriate for other centres, generalisability cannot be claimed for the results in this study to all other cases or other studies. This means that not all female centres in South Africa are poorly-resourced. This issue is highlighted here to emphasise to the reader that generalisation of findings should be made with caution. Similarly, not all youth centres in South Africa have fully become centres of excellence. There may be other juvenile centres where excellence facilities have not yet been implemented. 4.8.6 Saturation of the Study

Saturation is a stage at which a researcher feels the data collected in the field were not yielding any new ideas or issues. Savin-Baden and Major (2013: 525) concur that this “is a point at which

no new themes are being uncovered” from the field. Data were collected within 21 days, devoting 7 working days for each centre; however during the fieldwork, the male correctional centre was allocated more days because there were more educational activities than at other centres for females and youth. Eventually the time spent at each centre worked out as follows: • On four consecutive days, interviews and observations were conducted at the female centre; • Eleven days were spent at the male centre.

• Four days were spent at the youth centre

The saturation point was reached at the end of the 19th day. On the last two days (20th and 21st) much of the information already gathered was simply being repeated, and at that point the researcher felt that the saturation point had been reached.