EC as a Three-Step Process
Thach (2002) suggested that the coaching process consists of three phases: contract-ing, data collection, and coaching. Orenstein (2007) also described the EC practice as consisting of three phases, giving emphasis also to the conclusive part of the inter-vention: the first phase of entry which includes the initial contact, the preliminary meeting, the joint goal setting and the coaching contract; the second phase of facili-tating change which includes the processes of assessment, feedback, objectives set-ting, and formal coaching; and the third phase of concluding coaching which includes the outcome evaluation and concluding the coaching process.
EC as a Four-Step Process
Saporito (1996) proposed a model of executive coaching which consists of four stages:
a. ‘setting the foundation’, which involves working with the organization and with the individual to understand the context that will dictate the needs of coach-ing (includcoach-ing an overall understandcoach-ing of the organizational requirements, culture, philosophy, and context within the industry) and creating a profile of success.
b. ‘assessment of the individual’ to form the individual’s developmental profile and it includes the use of 360-degree process.
c. ‘developmental planning’, which includes providing feedback to the executive to identify the areas that need development in conjunction with the profile for success as well as develop a leadership development plan to identify how to help the executive become more effective.
d. ‘implementation’, where the plan turns to actions.
In a somewhat similar mode, Witherspoon and White (1996: 132) identified the fol-lowing four steps in the coaching process: commitment, assessment, action, and continuous improvement. Feldman and Lankau (2005) and O’Neill (2007) also fol-low a four-step approach, however, they give emphasis—as a final step—to what happens after the implementation. Specifically, Feldman and Lankau (2005: 837–8) note that although each coach shapes the coaching intervention in different ways to fit the specific executive client’s needs, there is a sequence of four key activities that take place in the coaching relationship: data gathering, feedback, implementa-tion of the intervenimplementa-tion (which involves periodic coaching sessions), and evalua-tion. O’Neill (2007) identifies in her proposed methodology four phases of coach-ing: (a) contracting (i.e., the coach finds a way to familiarize himself/herself with the client and become a ‘partner’), (b) planning (the coach keeps the ownership
with the client, which includes addressing specific issues and helping the client to iden-tify his or her side of the pattern and plan for resistance), (c) live-action coaching (which is about striking ‘while the iron is hot’ and includes behind-the-scenes coach-ing, observation of the client with his or her direct reports, live-action coaching of the client and his or her direct reports, and live-action coaching of the client while alone), and (d) debriefing (i.e., defining a learning focus which includes evaluation of the cli-ent’s and the coach’s effectiveness and debriefing when the coaching engagement ends).
EC as a Five-Step Process
Under a humanistic approach, Flaherty (2005:40, cited in Bartlett, 2007) suggests that the ‘flow of coaching’ includes five consequent steps: (a) establishing relation-ship (which requires developing mutual trust, respect, and freedom of expression), (b) recognizing opening (which includes examining possible obstacles such as habits and social identity), (c) observe/assess (instead of a reductivitist approach, it involves an expansion of the view, taking a complete systems view), (d) enroll client, and (e) coaching conversations.
Natale and Diamante (2005: 363–8) suggest that the executive coaching process consists of five stages: (1) the ‘alliance check’, which refers to the uncertainty that the executive has regarding what is going to happen during the EC and ‘why’ and includes the development of a roadmap of the EC process and removal of an resistance (this may entail the executive’s doubt regarding where the data drawn from the EC will be used and whether the EC is offered for developmental reasons or his/her termi-nation within the company is in any case predetermined), (2) the ‘credibility assess-ment’, which is the stage where the executive seeks to gain control and tests whether the coach can actually offer him something (this includes checking the coach’s background, credentials and experience), (3) the ‘likeability link’ is the stage where the executive compares his/her preferred style with that of the coach to see if they are able to connect to one another (this entails the executive measuring the coach’s self-confidence, knowledge and intensity, or business focus), (4) the ‘dialogue and skill acquisition’ stage, which focuses on discovery, analysis, verification, and application, which aims at preparing the executive for change and entails the executive’s under-standing of ‘self’ in relation to the business demands, with the help of what the authors propose as the four-factor (4F) model, (5) the ‘cue-based action plans’ is the fifth and final stage of EC and entails delineating, in behaviorally or cognitively specific terms, what the executive needs to do and when (action planning in cues).
Gregory et al. (2008) and Lee (2010) also include in the process description a debriefing step. Gregory et al. (2008) stressed the role of feedback in EC and propose a five-stage EC model (with several of these five progressive stages being affected by individual and organizational level variables): Stage 1 includes a catalyst for coaching (i.e., an event or catalyst for initiating a coaching intervention), Stage 2 is about estab-lishing the relationship between the coach and the client, Stage 3 involves data ering on the executive’s performance, Stage 4 is dedicated to utilizing feedback gath-ered through the various assessments and take action on the basis of this reviewed and interpreted feedback, and last, Stage 5 (which may occur simultaneously with Stage 4) refers to the outcomes of the intervention with regards to behavioural
changes which are typically gradual and ongoing (for detailed descriptions of each stage see Gregory et al., 2008: 48–52).
Lee (2010: 25) also notes that all coaching uses ‘some version’ of a key process that consists of five stages which are used ‘fluidly and cyclically’ in an iterative man-ner: (1) contracting (to agree the scope, boundaries and purpose of work with the coachee and the sponsors), (2) assessing (in order to gather useful information), (3) developing (to help the coachee move on), (4) implementing (so that the new learning can turn to new behaviour), (5) reviewing (which includes progress check-ing and realignment of the coachcheck-ing approach).
EC as a Six-Step Process
For Kampa-Kokesch and Anderson (2001: 208) EC consists of six stages: relation-ship building, assessment, feedback, planning, implementation, and evaluation and follow-up (Kampa-Kokesch and Anderson, 2001: 208).
According to Ennis et al. (2008a: 36–7) and Ennis et al. (2008b: 80–6) the six main coaching tasks and skills are: building and maintaining coaching relationships, con-tracting, assessment, development planning, facilitating development and change, and last, ending formal coaching and transitioning to long-term development.
EC as a Seven-Step Process
Based on a conducted survey and telephone interviews, Judge and Cowell (1997: 76) identified the following components of a typical coaching interven-tion that an executive should expect: (a) receive a formal or informal assessment, (b) conduct a review of long-term goals and aspirations, (c) sign a contract for sev-eral coaching sessions (six to twelve over a period of six months), (d) meet with the coach (either in the coach’s office or in the executive’s office) at least once a month for several sessions and then less frequently as time passes, (e) spend time to prepare for sessions or practice skills between sessions, (f) access and contact the coach between sessions via telephone or e-mail, (g) receive sound advice and ongo-ing feedback from the coach.
And more . . .
Kilburg (1996: 141) identified a long list of twenty-seven different coaching methods and techniques: (1) ‘Assessment and feedback’, (2) ‘Education’, (3) ‘Training’, (4) ‘Skill development’, (5) ‘Stimulations’, (6) ‘Role playing’, (7) ‘Organizational assess-ment and diagnosis’, (8) ‘Brainstorming’, (9) ‘Conflict and crisis manageassess-ment’, (10)
‘Communications’, (11) ‘Clarifications’, (12) ‘Confrontations’, (13) ‘Interpretations’, (14) ‘Reconstructions’, (15) ‘Empathy and encouragement’, (16) ‘Tact’, (17) ‘Helping to set limits’, (18) ‘Helping to maintain boundaries’, (19) ‘Depreciating and devalu-ing maladaptive behaviors, defenses, attitudes, values, emotions, fantasies’, (20)
‘Punishment and extinction of maladaptive behaviors’, (21) ‘Establishing conse-quences for behaviors’, (22) ‘Behavioral analysis’, (23) ‘Group process interventions’,
(24) ‘Working relationship interventions’, (25) ‘Project- and/or process-focused work on structure, process, and content issues in the organization or input, throughput, or output problems or issues’, (26) ‘Journaling, reading assignments, conferences, and workshops’, (27) ‘Other interventions, using organization development or training technologies’.