In t h i s s e c tio n I s h a ll d is c u s s the e ff e c t o f g lo r y on p o lit ic s ; sec. 111.4.1 s h a ll examine Hobbes's c la im th a t th e f a c t t h a t s o c ia b le a nim als, such as bees, can liv e p e a c e fu lly In n a tu r a l c o n d itio n s w h ils t men have to r e s o r t to a r t lf I c l a l l y - c r e a t e d p o l i t i c a l s ta te s can be accounted f o r In term s o f g lo ry . In the n e x t th re e s e c tio n s I s h a ll analyse Hobbes's argum ent on g lo r y In th e s ta te o f n a tu re (111.4.2), on g lo r y In th e p o l i t i c a l s ta te (111.4.3) and on th e r e la tio n s h ip between g lo r y and c i v i l war (111.4.4).
111.4.1 Glory, Men, and Bees
In th e co n c lu d in g c h a p te r o f th e f i r s t p a rt o f E lem ents o f Law Hobbes addresses th e q u e s tio n “ why concord re m a ln e th In a m u ltitu d e o f some I r r a t io n a l c re a tu re s [ lik e bees], and n o t o f men” (44). I t Is w o rth q u o tin g h is answer a t le n g th , as we w i l l f in d I t repeated a lm o st v e rb a tim In De Cive and Leviathan:
I answer th a t amongst o th e r liv in g c re a tu re s , th e re Is no q u e s tio n o f precedence In t h e ir own species, nor s t r i f e abo u t honour o r acknowledgement o f one a n o th e r's wisdom, as th e re Is amongst men; fro m whence a ris e envy and h a tre d o f one tow ards a n o th e r, and fro m thence s e d itio n and war. Secondly, those liv in g c re a tu re s aim e v e ry one a t peace and fo o d common to them a ll; men aim a t dom inion, s u p e r io r ity , and p r iv a te w e a lth , which a re d i s t i n c t In e v e ry man, and breed c o n te n tio n . T h ir d ly , those liv in g c re a tu re s th a t a re w ith o u t reason, have n o t le a rn in g enough to espy, o r to th in k th e y espy, any d e fe c t In th e governm ent; and th e r e fo r e a re co nte nte d th e re w ith ; b u t In a m u ltitu d e o f men, th e re a re alw ays some th a t th in k them selves w is e r than th e r e s t, and s t r iv e to a lt e r what th e y th in k amiss; and d iv e rs o f them s t r iv e to a l t e r d iv e rs ways; and causeth war. F o u rth ly , th e y want speech and a re th e r e fo r e unable to In s tig a te one a n o th e r to fa c tio n , w hich men want n o t. F if t h ly , th e y have no c o n ce p tio n o f r ig h t and wrong, b u t o n ly o f p le a s u re and pain, and th e re fo re a ls o no censure o f one a n o th e r, nor o f t h e ir commander, as long as th e y are them selves a t ease; whereas men
t h a t make the m se lve s judges o f r ig h t and wrong, a re then le a s t a t q u ie t, when th e y a re most a t ease. L a s tly , n a tu r a l concord, such Is amongst th o se c re a tu re s , Is th e work o f God by th e way o f n a tu re ; b u t concord amongst men Is a r t i f i c i a l , and by way o f covenant (45) As I t can be seen fro m th e above q u o ta tio n , g lo r y Is view ed as th e u n e q u iv o c a l so u rce o f c o m p e titio n , s e d itio n , and war. In th e long l i s t o f causes o f c o n f l i c t between men, a l l words used by Hobbes (bar one) a re g lo r y - r e la t e d : "precedence” , "honour", "acknowledgement o f one a n o th e r's wisdom", " dom inion", " s u p e r lo r lty " , th e th o u g h t " t o be w is e r than th e r e s t" , to know b e t t e r tha n o th e rs what Is " r i g h t and wrong". The o n ly n on-g lo r y - r e la t e d word In th e above l i s t Is " p r iv a te w e a lth ", w hich Is m entioned r a th e r c u r s o r ily . As we s h a ll see la te r . In th e p a r a lle l passage In De Cive Hobbes m entions a g a in th e d e s ire o f posse ssio n s as a cause o f c o n f lic t , b u t lin k s t h i s Idea f ir m ly to g lo ry ; In th e c o rre s p o n d in g passage In Leviathan, In ste a d , the concept o f p r iv a te w e a lth as cause o f c o n f li c t Is dropped a lto g e th e r . I t Is w o rth n o tin g t h a t n e ith e r the apprehension f o r s e lf - p r e s e r v a t io n n o r th e concern f o r s c a rce re so u rce s a re m entioned a t a l l as causes o f war. On th e c o n tra ry , on th e problem o f re so urces Hobbes a n tic ip a te s what he w i l l a rg ue In a la te r c h a p te r In E lem ents o f Law, namely th a t th e minds o f men "a re le a s t a t q u ie t" and more propense to d is c o n te n t and s e d itio n "when th e y are most a t e a s e "(46).
As to s e lf - p r e s e r v a t Ion, Hobbes seems to su g g e st th a t I f th e s o le concern o f men were t h e ir s u r v iv a l, they w ould co o p e ra te lik e bees
(45) Ib id ., p. 102.
(46) On th e r e la t io n between lack o f want and p o l i t i c a l d is c o n te n t see in fra , sec. 111.4.4.
and Live p e a c e fu lly w ith o u t th e need f o r a r t i f i c i a l covenants and bonds.
111.4.2 G lo ry and th e S ta te o f N ature
Whereas In th e above passage aimed a t e x p la in in g th e causes o f c o m p e titio n , s e d itio n , and war Hobbes does n o t m ention s e l f - p re s e rv a tio n a lt o p ^ h e r . In C hapter 14 where th e s ta te o f n a tu re Is a n a lyse d Hobbes shows th a t th e concern f o r s e lf - p r e s e r v a t io n Is what t r ig g e r s o f f war. I t Is o f c r u c ia l Im portance to r e a liz e why Hobbes can m a in ta in c o n s is te n tly both p ro p o s itio n s . For t h i s purpose, I s h a ll s k e tc h th e v a rio u s s te p s th a t make up Hobbes's argum ent as s e t o u t In C hapter 14: f i r s t l y he a rg ue s th a t men a re equ a l (secs. 1 -2 ); secondly, he p o in ts o u t th a t some men “ are v a in ly g lo rio u s , and hope f o r precedency and s u p e r io r it y above t h e ir fe llo w s " (47). He devotes th re e s e c tio n s (2 -4 ) to I l l u s t r a t e how these people are “ by v a in g lo r y Ind isp o sed to a llo w e q u a lity w ith them selves to o th e rs " and a re “ a p t to provoke one a n o th e r by com parisons ... and to encroach one upon a n o th e r" (48). T h ir d ly , In sec. 3 he In tro d u c e s th e concept o f d iffid e n c e and fe a r, as e xp e rie n ce d by moderate men to w a rd s the v a in g lo r io u s . F o u rth ly , in sec. 5 he n o tic e s th a t “ many men" want th e same th in g , w hich o fte n cannot be enjoyed In common o r d iv id e d . From th e c o n te x t I t Is c le a r th a t he Is r e f e r r in g n o t to th e means o f s u r v iv a l (o th e rw is e he would n o t have s p e c ifie d t h a t many, and n o t
(47) Ibid.f p. 71. (48) Ibid ., p. 70.
a l l , men want them), b u t to th e b e s t land and re s o u rc e s . F in a lly , he concludes th a t l i f e Is In danger and tu rn s to d e s c rib e th e r ig h t o f n a tu re and th e s ta te o f war.
As we can see fro m t h i s account, th e f i r s t cause o f c o n f li c t is va in g lo ry ; th e f a c t th a t some people a re v a in g lo rio u s e x p la in s why a l l fe e l d i f f i d e n t and concerned a bout resources and s e lf- p r e s e r v a tio n . In o th e r words, whereas d iffid e n c e and fe a r o f death a re th e p ro xim a te causes o f war in th e s t a t e o f n a tu re , vain g lo r y is th e u ltim a te cause. A t t h is s ta g e i t may be re c a lle d th a t in C hapter I we e s ta b lis h e d th a t T hucydides in h is e x p la n a tio n o f th e Peloponnesian war had deployed a v e ry s im ila r lin e o f re a so n in g , d is tin g u is h in g between u ltim a te and p ro x im a te causes o f war: th e a m b itio n o f the A th e n ia n s to augment f u r t h e r t h e ir dom inion is seen a t th e o r ig in o f th e fe a r o f th e Lacedœmonians to be subdued which, in tu r n , sparks o f f th e war.
In c o n c lu s io n , i t can be s a id th a t th e re is no c o n tr a d ic tio n between Hobbes's p o s itio n th a t g lo r y a lo ne is the o r ig in o f c o m p e titio n , war, and s e d itio n and h is d e s c r ip tio n o f the s ta te o f n a tu re where the concern f o r s e lf - p r e s e r v a t io n and re sources t r ig g e r s o f f the c o n f lic t . In th e passage examined in the p re v io u s s e c tio n Hobbes is exam ining th e u ltim a te cause o f c o n f lic t, whereas in Chapter 14- a n a lyse d in t h is s e c tio n he is s p e llin g o u t th e dynam ics o f war.
As we s h a ll see in th e n e x t Chapter, Hobbes w i l l employ aga in the Thucidedean scheme o f u ltim a te and p roxim ate causes o f war in a l l h is p o l i t i c a l w r itin g s , w ith o n ly m inor m o d ific a tio n s .
111.4.3 Glory, Honour, and the P o lit ic a l State
I t Is s ig n if ic a n t to n o te th a t In h is d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s ta te o f n a tu re In C hapter 14 Hobbes never uses the te rm g lo ry , b u t va in g lo r y Inste a d. T h is Is because th ro u g h o u t h is w r it in g s Hobbes m a in ta in s c o n s is te n tly th a t th e re can be no g lo r y n o r s u p e r io r ity between men o u ts id e a p o l i t i c a l s ta te . He w r ite s :
The q u e s tio n , w hich Is th e b e tte r man. Is d e te rm in a b le o n ly In the