History and description as a pedagogy 76

Problem-based learning, as a specific pedagogy or teaching approach, was developed in the late 1960s in McMaster University to enable medical students to apply and synthesise knowledge through the use of ‘real life’ case studies (Boud & Feletti 1997; Barrows & Tamblyn 1980). In the 1970’s Michigan State University and the newly formed Maastricht (Netherlands) and Newcastle (Australia) universities also developed problem-based learning courses. From this point, more medical schools began to implement problem-based learning within their courses or establish curricula that included some form of problem- based learning. Hoffman et al. (2006) reported that eighty percent of U.S. medical schools report they use some form of problem-based learning (although each schools definition of

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problem-based learning can differ greatly). It has since gained in popularity across diverse subjects such as law, business studies; engineering, medical/healthcare, architecture, economics, geology, social work and psychology (Woods 1994; Milter & Stinson 1995; Gijselaers 1995; Clouston & Whitcombe 2005; Alavi 1995; Allen et al. 2001; Donaldson 1989; Maitland 1998; Garland 1995, Smith & Hoersch 1995; Heycox & Bolzan 1991, Reynolds 1997, Pawson et al. 2006, Chu et al. 2009). Problem-based learning has been implemented in physics in the last ten years (Raine & Symons 2005, Van Kampen 2004, Duch et al. 2001) and was implemented in the DIT physics courses in 1999 (Bowe & Cowan 2004) although elements of it have been used throughout the physics community under the name of co-operative learning for a longer period of time (Heller & Hollabaugh 1992).

Barrows in an overview paper on problem-based learning (Barrows 1996 p.4) describes the motivation for developing the problem-based learning approach in McMaster University as he refers to the fact that the “McMaster group noted that the students were disenchanted and bored with their medical education because they were saturated by the vast amounts of information they had to absorb, much of which was perceived to have little relevance to medical practice”. This directly led to “my design of a method of stressing development of the clinical reasoning or problem solving process for the neuroscience unit of the McMaster curriculum” (Barrows 1984 p.19). He was looking for a method of delivery that would link the education with the professional practice that they would eventually receive in medical education.

With regard to a description of problem-based learning as ‘pedagogy’ as its creator himself in his 1986 paper (Barrows 1986 p.484) states that “All these approaches to problem-based learning represent such a wide variety of methods that now the term has far less precision than might be assumed” or as Chen (1995) commented - the range of definitions illustrates how difficult it is to come to one universal definition. There is such a variety of what the educational community has considered as problem-based learning in the past that no one description will sufficiently describe the pedagogy. Instead the following segments give a description of the crucial elements of a problem-based learning course and details what is

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designed to occur in such a problem-based learning course. To begin with Barrows in his 1996 (Barrows 1996) overview paper describes the characteristics of his definition of a problem-based learning course and in it he states that under the McMaster model a problem-learning course should be comprised of the following characteristics:

 Learning is Student-Centred

 Learning occurs in Small Student Groups  Teachers are Facilitators or Guides

 Problems form the Organising Focus and Stimulus for Learning  Problems are a Vehicle for the Development of Clinical Problem

Solving Skills

 New Information is acquired through Self-Directed Learning

In the same paper, Barrows (Barrows 1996 p.4) argues that all subjects in a problem-based learning programme should be taught using the problem-based learning approach stating that not doing so would “inhibit integration of those subjects (ones not taught through problem-based learning) in the students’ understanding of a patients problem, it also requires students to move in and out of different learning approaches”. This problem has been referenced in section (1.2).

In a paper by Dolmans (2005, p. 734), she describes problem-based learning in relation to its vital characteristics: “Although problem-based learning differs in various schools, three characteristics can be considered as essential: problems as a stimulus for learning, tutors as facilitators and group work as stimulus for interaction”. Different approaches can be put forward to tackling learning issues or the use of student roles to stimulate interaction but these are often subject specific and the implementation of problem-based learning comes down to the use of the above mentioned essential features. Typically, problems are written “to guide students towards certain subject matter” (Schmidt & Moust 2000, p. 2) and “A problem usually describes some phenomenon or events that can be observed in everyday life, but can also consist of the description of an important theoretical or practical issue” (Schmidt 1983a p.14).

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Problem-based learning as it was envisaged by its creator Barrows (1986, p. 483) must have certain characteristics but Barrows also argues that there must be certain inherent aspects in the way the problem-based learning programme is implemented to be considered to be problem-based learning pedagogy:

“A collection of carefully made problems are presented to smaller groups of students. Problems are usually descriptions of observable phenomena or courses of events that have to be elucidated or explained. Through a structured work process students formulate preliminary explanations to the phenomena, and link these to underlying theories or processes. The tasks of the groups are to perform the work process, to formulate what aspects of the initial problem they want to study, and to define their learning goal for the self tuition that follows. After this, tutorial groups meet again and give shared or joint account of the knowledge acquired, and finally “solves” the problem. Students and their tutor evaluate each meeting regarding learning processes in relation to goals of the actual theme.”

Along a similar theme Cockrell et al. (2000) identified that problem-based learning has six basic steps (a) encounter with the problem, (b) free inquiry, (c) identification of the learning issues, (d) peer teaching, (e) knowledge integration, and (f) problem solution. This would also describe how each group progresses through each problem in the DIT problem-based learning course (Bowe 2004). A detailed description of the basic steps that students take in the physics problem-based learning course is provided in a later section.

There has been a more recent debate on the stringency of inclusion of Barrows inherent aspects with Savin-Baden & Howell Major (2004) arguing that problem-based learning should not be defined by such limiting aspects and favour a more flexible view of the pedagogy. Savin-Baden (2008) describes different modes of problem-based learning depending on the context and subject in which problem-based learning is to be implemented in. Charlin et al. (1998) argue that differences between problem-based learning curricula can be found over ten dimensions: problem selection; problem purpose; student versus teacher control; nature of task; presentation of problem; problem format; process followed; resources used; role of tutor and outcomes assessed.

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