Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

Gardner (1983, 1995, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2006) sets out an understanding of intelligence, a broader view than was previously held, with his hypothesis that there are numerous types of intelligences. Traditionally, linguistic and logical ability were tested to determine a person’s intelligence. What Gardner has achieved is a widening of this narrow interpretation of intelligence to a much more holistic understanding of intelligence. Through his research he proposes that there are at least eight (originally he proposed seven) types of intelligence and that we all use one, two or more of these when we learn.1

 Linguistic Intelligence: the intelligence of words. Sensitivity to the spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, skills in hearing, listening, speaking, humour, creative writing, poetry. People in this area can argue, persuade, entertain or instruct effectively through the spoken word.

 Logical-Mathematical: the intelligence of numbers and logic, reasoning, pattern detection, symbolic abstraction, formulas, number sequence, calculation, problem solving, create hypotheses. People in this area think in terms of cause-and-effect.

 Musical Intelligence: People, who have the capacity to perceive, appreciate and produce rhythms and melodies, singing, and vibrations. Musical skills and performance including composition abilities.

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 Spatial Intelligence: people in this area think in pictures and images. They have the ability to recognise and manipulate the patters of wide space or confined areas. They have the ability to perceive, transform and re-create different aspects of the visual/spatial world. Important aspects in this area are art, pictures, sculpture, drawing, doodling, mind maps, pattern, colour, imagination.

 Bodily-Kinaesthetic: the ability to use one’s entire or parts of the body to

solve problems of fashion products. It is the intelligence of the physical self. ‘It includes the talent in controlling one’s body movements and also in handling objects skilfully’. Examples include: athletes, crafts people, mechanics, and surgeons. People who enjoy physical pursuit’s activities such as role play, drama, sport, dancing, jogging.

 Interpersonal: The ability to work with other people. It requires a capacity to ‘perceive and be responsive to the moods, temperaments, intentions, and desires of others. Characteristics include: sociable, group projects, teamwork, collaborating, giving and receiving feedback. It is the ability to understanding people’s motives, to be able to ‘get inside the skin of another person’.

 Intrapersonal intelligence: the intelligence of the inner self. A person who is able to access and understand their own feelings, emotions and use this self understanding to enrich and guide their life. Often independent people with high self discipline and goal orientated. Career examples include theologians, the self employed, counsellors.

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 Naturalistic Intelligence: A person who demonstrates expertise in the recognition and classification of nature or the environment, biological interest, charting, observing change, journal- and log-keeping, phenomenon aware. (Ref Gardner 1983, 2004; Armstrong 1999. Gage & Berliner 1991).

Gardner (1983) originally defined intelligence as ‘the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings’, two decades later he offers what he calls a more refined definition, saying that he conceptualises an intelligence as ‘a bio-psychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture’ (2004:33-34). He is proposing that we each have all the intelligences to a greater or lesser degree, some developed more than others depending on circumstances, that no two individuals are the same, not even identical twins (2006:23).

2.3 Learning

Dewey’s (1938) Experience and Education adds to the debate as to the nature of adult learning opened by Lindeman’s (1932) The Meaning of Adult Education. For Dewey, it is a matter of fact that people learn from their experiences. The meaning and the process of learning have been the attention of numerous theorists in recent decades, including: Bateson’s learning theory (1972); Cell’s learning theory (1984); Habermas’s instrumental and communicative learning (1971, 1984,1987); Gange’s (1977) eight phase model

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of learning; Mezirow’s (1978) transformative learning; Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning, Langer’s (1997) mindful learning, along with the theorists previously mentioned.

Learning in the context of this research is concerned more with the ‘processes’ of what actually happens as the learning takes place, rather than the content and the outcomes. Schuller and Megarry (1979) refer to effective adult learning as ‘an active search for meaning’ 1979:61).

According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999) adult education is a ‘large and amorphous field of practice, with no net boundaries… (1999:45). Merriam and Brockett (2007) suggest that trying to define adult education is ‘akin to the proverbial elephant being described by five blind men: it depends on where you are standing and how you experience the phenomenon’ (2007:4). However they do offer a more helpful way forward by acknowledging that adult education is what happens when ‘you are working with adults in some organised, educational activity…’ (2007:4).

Schuller and Megarry (1979) referring to the United Kingdom, use the term adult education to be understood as an ‘extension of general education into adult life....’ (1979:257). Again referring to the UK, Jarvis (2002) says that the term ‘adult education’ carries specific connotations which imply that it is

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‘specifically liberal education’ which gives it a stereotype of being a ‘middle- class, leisure time pursuit’ (2002:22).

Jarvis (1983) suggests education can be defined as ‘any planned series of incidents, having a humanistic basis, directed towards the participants learning and understanding’ (1983:5). Later in his 2002 writings, Jarvis puts forward the meaning of adult education to refer to ‘any educational process undertaken by adults, whether liberal, general or vocational, and located in the spheres of adult, further or higher education or outside the institutional framework entirely’ (2002:22).

Brookfield (1995) when presenting the differing approaches taken within the field of adult education suggests that the important core aspect within each approach is that it enables the development of the skills to learn from experience and plan for the future.

The core idea uniting these diverse formulations is that adults develop a kind of situational reasoning that they use to interpret their experiences and guide their actions (1995:221).

Learning, in its broadest sense, can take place in a variety of ways in a variety of places. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) speak of the importance of understanding the many learning opportunities encountered by adults; how it is important to acknowledge prior knowledge and experience of learners ‘wherever gained’.

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This concept of learning taking place in a variety of arenas is central to understanding the concept of ‘learning’ in an adult educational context. The life experience of adults, the situational context in which learning takes place, is a key factor in the understanding and development of adult learning. The learning of adults is shaped by the society in which he or she lives. Jarvis (1987) makes this point when he says that learning does not take place ‘in splendid isolation from the world in which the learner lives… it is intimately related to that world and affected by it’ (1987:11).

This concept of learning challenges the educator to understand how adults learn and have an appreciation for the prior learning which adults bring with them into the formal setting. This prior learning may consist of skills and knowledge acquired through non-formal, informal or self-directed learning, as much as from formal learning opportunities.