Few studies have discussed issues related to IT adoption in developing countries (Abdul- Gader & Alangari 1996; Kirlidog 1996; Rose & Straub 1998; Montealegre 1999; Harris & Davison 2002; Straub et al. 2002). Rose & Straub (1998) investigated the
Management
Technical Social
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applicability of TAM (Davis 1989; Davis 1993) to IT adoption in the Arab world. They argued that social and cultural beliefs are key issues to IT adoption in Arab countries. However, their investigation did not assess particular social or cultural aspects. Kirlidog (1996), in his study of information systems in Turkey, examines the relationship between management practices and IT applications and claims that the information is most likely transferred in one direction (from top to bottom) within the organisation in the form of directions and commands. He also claims that people in developing countries are generally unwilling to take risks and thus uncertainty avoidance behaviour is exhibited (Hofstede 1984; Hofstede 1994; Daft 1998). The desire for risk and uncertainty avoidance acts as a high entry barrier for information systems development in developing countries (Kirlidog 1996). Moreover, Carnoy (1997) claims that the lack of highly skilled management and flexible self-confident labour are considerable barriers to the adoption of new technology in developing countries. According to Abdul-Gader & Alangari (1996, p. 113):
The richness of IT literature has primarily focused on organisations in the developed hemisphere. Even in the sporadic literature on IT in developing countries, one rarely encounters scholarly reports on IT assimilation problems in these countries' organisations. Most studies are descriptive in nature.
In their research about IT assimilation in Saudi public organisations, Abdul-Gader & Alangari (1996) reveal that human resources issues are the most important barriers towards IT assimilation in Saudi public organisations.
Concerning the impact of IT adoption on the situation within developing countries Nulens (1997) identifies three streams of research. The first and argued to be the most dominant stream of this research is based on a world vision that overestimates the one- way power of technology. In his view, the information revolution will give developing countries the opportunity for development and eventually all countries of the world will become more equal. The second stream is based on the assumption that IT will only increase the existing inequalities and power relations between developed and developing countries. The third stream of research views technology as a part of the society, which
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has no advantage without other parts. Therefore, according to this stream, the belief of an autonomous or self-directed technology is a misconception where technology cannot stand alone without considering other aspects of its environment. The second stream seems more appropriate because it has a political base that directs the technology transfer into developing countries. However, that does not mean that IT deployment itself is something that should be avoided. One can argue that developing countries can successfully utilise IT and DM through creating an appropriate IT and DM foundation that is based on a high-quality economy and self-reliance. In doing this, developing countries should consider their individual needs and the characteristics of their own contextual frameworks (socio-cultural characteristics of each region) free of any political or economic pressure from developed countries.
Some problems that face developing countries and prevent successful utilisation of IT include: the lack of technological consciousness of managers and civil employees, the lack of knowledge about the best way to acquire technology and the lack of capacity to design and develop their own technologies (Nulens 1997). Hanna et al. (1995) claim that several structural barriers may constrain the IT adoption in developing countries. Some of these barriers are slow educational response to new universal technologies, poor telecommunication infrastructure, poor technical and managerial capabilities, poor regulatory framework and low domestic demand for IT. Another restraint, which is identified by Heeks & Stanforth (2007), is related to the justification of using technology. The achievement of the financial cost-cutting goal is questionable in developing countries’ context where replacing cheap humans with costly ICTs is unlikely to be defended on financial cost grounds. In contrast, within the context of developed countries, replacing costly humans with cheap ICTs may cut costs. Therefore, the emphasis in developing countries should be directed towards other achievements (e.g., increase process speed, improve the quality of services) in order to provide some grounds for automation. Therefore, in their study of e-government development in developing countries, Heeks & Stanforth (2007) state that the few success stories mentioned in some studies are the exception rather than the rule for two reasons. The
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first is related to the lack of electronic-readiness, the second is related to the lack of information and research that may help e-governance initiatives in these countries. This, in turn, creates design-reality gaps.
A survey conducted by two international IT firms, Zogby & Artoc (2001), showed that the principal weaknesses in the Arab world in relation to IT include: lack of technological know-how; lack of planning/strategy; lack of Arab co-operation; lack of financing; politics/bureaucracy; incorrect thinking/bad leadership; lack of infrastructure; language problems; and lack of co-operation with outsiders. Conversely, when 210 IT professionals were asked to assess the principal strengths that the Arab world can bring to its planning for IT development, the conference participants suggested the following: human -resources/trained personal; financial resource; common language; Arab large market; scientific and technological progress; co-operation between Arab countries; and natural resources. Only 24 % of the participants considered technical and infrastructure related issues as weaknesses for Arab's IT situation. Hill et al. (1998) who investigated the culture of Arab countries and its influence on IT transfer revealed that Arab organisations that successfully introduced IT have paid more attention to the cultural beliefs in these organisations. They go further to identify specific social and cultural aspects that affect IT transfer. Social aspects, in their view, include social class, personal relations in work-groups and educational levels while cultural aspects include face-to- face interactions, allegiance to family and kin group, concept of time and religion. Based on their field study, they also identify some impediments for IT transfer to Arab countries. These include: lack of finance; conflict with personal values; lack of knowledge/experience; lack of training; lack of education; fear of loss identity; and fear of being controlled.
As discussed above, several impediments were revealed in previous studies that may have effects on IT adoption in developing countries. These impediments may have an effect on the adoption of DM within AIS in publicly listed companies in Jordan as DM and AIS are part of IT.
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