between a wave and a fi eld typically has a balance of a ridge shapes and pockets of small irregular movement. The example illustrates the dissipation of a wave ridge and atomization along the edges Figure 8.8 WAVE-FOLD. As was regularly evidenced in the experiments, the intermediate state between a wave and a fold is typically a swelling of a wave ridge shape. The case illustrated shows the intersection of two wave ridges and the forming of two adjacent patches of movement typical of a fold state
The morphology of kinetic pattern articulated in this fi nal chapter provides a theoretical basis for progressing design activity in this distinct fi eld. It is hoped that the concepts proposed here stimulate further exploration within the pragmatics of technology and materiality.17 The animations used to develop the morphology are not all inclusive, but they map a signifi cant number of design possibilities. Moreover, the approach is based on the proposition of three simple states and a theoretically infi nite number of state transitions. That is, it provides a robust structure, but one which is extendable to enable further design research. The individual requirements of programme and site will inform the degree to which the morphology can be adapted and developed. Clearly, not all design briefs will have composition to the forefront. Nonetheless, it is anticipated that any implementation of kinetics may consider the liquid potential of kinetics, and, in so doing, aspire to a poetry of movement.
Notes
Chapter 1
1 See Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983.
2 See Rickey, G. W. ‘The Morphology of Movement: A Study of Kinetic Art’. Arts Journal. 1963; vol. 22.
3 The origin of morphology is accredited to Johann Goethe, who according to Sharpe made a clear distinction in zoology between function and form. See Sharpe, L. The Cambridge Companion to
Goethe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002. p. 168.
4 Michael Batty describes in 1999 a shift in emphasis for research in urban morphology. ‘Current approaches are still largely focused upon the representation of static structures, based on measuring morphologies at one cross section in time and determining important relationships such as those associated with accessibility. In other areas of urban modelling, a massive shift has taken place as we have realized that the only way to satisfactorily explain outcomes – structures – is through the processes that give rise to them.’ Batty, M. ‘A Research Programme for Urban Morphology’. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 1999; vol. 26: 475.
5 See Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983. Preface.
6 Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983. p. 11.
7 Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983. p. 61.
8 Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983. pp. 6–12.
9 See Rickey, G. W. ‘The Morphology of Movement: A Study of Kinetic Art’. Arts Journal. 1963; vol. 22: 230.
10 See Steadman, P. Architectural Morphology: An Introduction to the Geometry of Building Plans. London: Pion. 1983. p. 248.
11 See Tschumi, B. Architecture and Disjunction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1994.
12 For a seminal overview of the development of the architecture in relation to the movement of the surveyor, see Bois, Y.-A. and Shepley, J. ‘A Picturesque Stroll around Clara-Clara’. October. 1984; vol. 29.
13 The play of light and shadow on architectural surface and through the refl ection and refraction of glass has been manipulated in architecture from the Middle Ages onwards. See Marks, R. Stained
Glass in England During the Middle Ages. London: Routledge. 1993.
14 See Mostafavi M. and Leatherbarrow D. On Weathering. Boston, MA: MIT Press. 1993. 15 The status of Mendelsohn’s design has been subject to debate, with Kenneth Frampton linking the
project to expressionism. See Frampton, K. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. London: Oxford University Press. 1981. p. 120. Reyner Banham considered Mendelsohn was representative of Italian Futurism in terms of a technological agenda, but Whiteley argues this was more symbolic
Notes
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then actual. See Whiteley, N. Reyner Banham: Historian of the Immediate Future. Boston, MA: MIT Press. 2003. p. 47.
16 See Terzidis, K. Expressive Form. New York: Spon Press. 2003. p. 43. 17 Terzidis, K. Expressive Form. New York: Spon Press. 2003. pp. 33–43.
18 For a review of contemporary media facades, see Ag4: Media Facades 2000–2006. Cologne: Daab. 2006.
19 The trajectory of the facade from load-bearing construction to curtain wall is examined in Leatherbarrow, D. and Mostafavi, M. Surface Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2002. 20 See Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. Intelligent Skins. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 2002. 21 See Neumeyer, F. ‘Head First through the Wall: An Approach to the Non-Word Facade’. Journal
of Architecture. 1999; vol. 4: 257.
22 For a thorough documentation of revolving structure, see Randl, C. Revolving Architecture:
A History of Buildings That Rotate, Swivel, and Pivot. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
2008.
23 For a recent discussion of Price and the Fun Palace, see Anstey, T. ‘Where Is the Project? Cedric Price on Architectural Action’, in Rendell (ed.) Critical Architecture. London: Routledge. 2007. 24 For a recent review of intelligent rooms in architecture see Maher, M. L., Merrick, K. and Saunders,
R. ‘From Passive to Proactive Design Elements’, in Dong, A., Vande Moere, A. and Gero, J. S. (eds)
CAAD Futures. Sydney: Springer. 2007. For a general review of responsive spaces and Human
Computer Interaction, see Anshuman, S. and Kumar, B. ‘Architecture and HCI: A Review of Trends Towards an Integrative Approach to Designing Responsive Space’. International Journal of IT in
Architecture, Engineering and Construction. 2004; vol. 2.
25 Catherine Ingraham discusses what she describes as ‘the lament for an architecture-of-motion’ in book 10 of Vitruvius. See Ingraham, C. Architecture and the Burdens of Linearity. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1998. pp. 133–42.
26 See Anshuman, S. ‘Responsiveness and Social Expression: Seeking Human Embodiment in Intelligent Façades’. ACADIA 05. Savannah (Georgia). 2005.
27 ’Movement itself’ is a term that originates from the 1920 ‘Realistic Manifesto’ by Naum Gabo and his brother Antoine Pevsner. In a critique of Italian Futurism, the term was used to distinguish the act of movement from the representation of movement as multiple superimposed frames. It subsequently was utilized by kinetic art theorists such as Frank Popper and George Rickey. This legacy will be examined in Chapter 4, where it informs a defi nition of kinetic pattern for architectural facades. See Gabo, N. and Pevsner, A. ‘The Realistic Manifesto’, in Bowlt, J. (ed.)
Russian Art of the Avant Garde: Theory and Criticism, 1902–1934. New York: Thames and Hudson.
1920.
28 See Rickey, G. W. ‘The Morphology of Movement: A Study of Kinetic Art’. Arts Journal. 1963; vol. 22: 225.
Chapter 2
1 See Fox, M. A. and Kemp, M. Interactive Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. 2009. p. 46.
2 See Moussavi, F. and Kubo, M. The Function of Ornament. New York: Actar. 2006. p. 9. The authors utilize a classifi cation by depth of facade and sub-categories based on a loose defi nition of materiality that includes lighting and branding. The classes are further complicated by overlaying a third category effect. The fi rst category depth is useful and is adopted here.
3 Michael Fox developed a taxonomy of control systems in conjunction with B. Yeh while teaching at MIT. See Fox, M. A. and Yeh, B. P. ‘Intelligent Kinetic Systems in Architecture’, in Nixon, Lacey and Dobson (eds) Managing Interactions in Smart Environments: First International Workshop. London: Springer. 2000.
4 See Güçyeter, B. ‘A Comparative Examination of Structural Characteristics of Retractable Structures’, MSc thesis, Dokuz Eylül University. 2004.
5 See Korkmaz, K. ‘An Analytical Study of the Design Potentials in Kinetic Architecture’. PhD thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology. 2004.
6 The emphasis of the monograph on Shigeru Ban is on his unique use of materials. See Ban, S., Ambasz, E., Bell, E. and Wood, D. Shigeru Ban. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2001. The theme of materiality also dominates critical reviews. See, for example, Webb, M. ‘Tradition Stood on End’. Architectural Review. 2005; February 1: 82–5.
7 See Oosterhuis, K. ‘A New Kind of Building’. 2005. Available online at http://www.haecceityinc. com/homepage.html. Transcript of a lecture originally titled ‘Programming the Point Cloud’ presented at the Royal College of Art, London, 2005.
8 See Oosterhuis, K. and Biloria, N. ‘Interactions with Proactive Architectural Spaces: The Muscle Projects’. Communications of the ACM-Organic user Interfaces. 2008; vol. 51.
9 See Craig, D. J. ‘The Future Tents: Kinetic Sculptor Chuck Hoberman Expands the Boundaries of Design’. Columbia Magazine. 2006; Spring.
10 This project was supervised by Michael A. Fox in a design studio undertaken at the California Polytechnic State University and can be accessed at http://www.mafox.net/
11 For an overview of projects that incorporate kinetic sunscreens in architectural design, see Baird, G. The Architectural Expression of Environmental Control Systems. London: Taylor and Francis. 2001.
12 The project uses a commercial system, Girasol. Technical specifi cation available from http://www. coltinfo.co.uk/products-and-systems/list-of-publications/
13 The project for a kinetic facade with panels with three degrees of rotation was originally sourced online. Some documentation of the competition is available at http://www.faenza.com/Concorsi/ Verbale.htm
14 By ‘temporal operations’, Leatherbarrow and Mostafavi refer to the development of the window from a purely visual function ‘an instrument of seeing, or establishing the look of a building’ to that in which ‘it is also an instrument of adjustment’ not only an eye but also a hand. Leatherbarrow, D. and Mostafavi, M. Surface Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2002. p. 62.
15 See Leatherbarrow, D. ‘Architecture’s Unscripted Performance’, in Kolarevic and Malkawi (eds)
Performance Architecture: Beyond Instrumentality. New York: Spon Press. 2005. p. 12.
16 See Hill, J. ‘Storefront for Art and Architecture in New York’, 1999, A Weekly Dose of Architecture. 31 May.
17 See Acconi, V., Holl, S. and Ritter, A. Storefront for Art and Architecture. New York: Hatje Cantz. 2000.
18 Traditional architectural relief is typically considered in terms of the sculptural categories of bas- relief, high relief where the fi gure is undercut to reveal 50 per cent of the form, or sunken relief where a shallow incision is made on a fl at surface. For a general overview of sculptural relief see Rogers, L. R. Relief Sculpture. London: Oxford University Press. 1974.
19 The Aegis is described as one of a trilogy of projects that include the Pallas House (CNC surface) and the Paramorph (tessellated aluminium double-curved surface) that explore what dECOi Architects term an ‘alloplastic’ approach – ‘a self-determinate operative strategy’: dECOi Architects. ‘Technological Latency: From Autoplastic to Alloplastic’. Digital Creativity. 2000; vol. 11: 135. 20 For an overview of Ned Kahn’s kinetic art see Mather, D. ‘An Aesthetic of Turbulence: The Works
of Ned Kahn’, in Narula, Senupta, Sundaram, Sharen and Lovink (eds) Sarai Reader 6: Turbulence. Delhi: Centre for the Study of Developing Societies. 2006.
21 The MIT Kinetic Design Group was founded by Michael Fox, who has since gone on to form a kinetic design consultancy, Fox Lin Inc.
22 The potential impact of nanotechnology for architecture is sketched in Spiller, N. ‘Nanotechnology – the Liberation of Architecture’, in Hill, J. (ed.) Architecture: The Subject Is Matter. London: Routledge. 2001. For a technical overview of nanotechnology and other approaches that have become known as smart materials, see Addington, M. and Schodek, D. Smart Materials and
Notes
154
23 Shape memory alloys have been utilized in a range of prototypes through the commercial availability of alloys and actuators. An overview of nanomaterials can be found in Addington, M. and Schodek, D. Smart Materials and Technologies for Architecture and Design Professionals. Oxford: Architectural Press. 2005.
24 See Hladik, P. ‘Moving Structure’, in Beesley, Hirosue, Buxton, Trankle and Turner (eds) Responsive
Architectures Subtle Technologies. Toronto: Riverside Architectural Press. 2006. pp. 126–9.
25 See Hensel, M. and Sungurog, D. ‘Material Performance’. Architectural Design. 2008; vol. 78. 26 Window-cleaning robots have been under development for some time. For example, see
Miyake, T. and Ishihara, H. ‘Development of Small Size Window Cleaning Robot by Wall Climbing Mechanism’. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction. Tokyo. 2006.
27 For examples of small-scale wind turbines incorporated with a building skin, see the architectural project page of AeroVironment at http://www.avinc.com/wind
28 See Gage, S. ‘Edge Monkeys – the Design of Habitat Specifi c Robots in Buildings’. Technoetic
Arts. 2005; vol. 3.
29 The pavilion incorporated a water wall 65 metres long and 18 metres high. Information on the project can be accessed online at http://www.grimshaw-architects.com/
30 For a review of the Zaragoza pavilion, see Fortmeyer, R. ‘Control Freaks’. Architectural Record. 2010; March.
31 See Wolfe, C. ‘Lose the Building: Systems Theory, Architecture, and Diller+Scofi dio’s Blur’.
Postmodern Culture. 2006; 16(3).
32 See Beesley, P. Kinetic Architectures and Geotextile Installations. Cambridge, ON: Riverside Architectural Press. 2010.
33 See dECOi Architects. ‘Technological Latency: From Autoplastic to Alloplastic’. Digital Creativity. 2000; vol. 11: 134.
34 dECOi Architects, ‘Technological Latency: From Autoplastic to Alloplastic’. Digital Creativity. 2000; vol. 11: 135.
35 Beesley describes the development of his design approach in Beesley, P. (ed.) Kinetic Architectures
and Geotextile Installations, Cambridge, ON: Riverside Press, 2009.
36 See Beesley, P. ‘Hylozoic Ground’. 2010. Available online at http://www.hylozoicground.com/press/ index.html.
37 See Payne, A. ‘Surface: Between Structure and Sense’, in Beesley, P. (ed.) Kinetic Architectures
and Geotextile Installations. Cambridge, ON: Riverside Press. 2009. p. 57.
38 See Beesley, P., Hirosue, S. and Ruxton, J. ‘Towards Responsive Architecture’, in Beesley, Hirosue and Ruxton (eds) Responsive Architectures Subtle Technologies. Cambridge, ON: Riverside Architectural Press. 2006. p. 3.
39 For an overview of Ned Kahn’s kinetic facades, see Kahn, N. ‘Wind Veil’, 2000. Available online at http://nedkahn.com/wind.html.
40 See Haeusler, M. H. Chromatophoric Architecture: Designing for 3d Media Facades. Berlin: Jovis. 2010. p. 25.
41 Brian Eno has been exploring generative approaches within a range of art genres since the 1970s. For an early articulation of his approach to indeterminate forms of art, see Eno, B. ‘Generating and Organizing Variety in the Arts’, in Battock, G. (ed.) Breaking the Sound Barrier: A Critical Anthology
of the New Music. New York: Elsevier-Dutton Publishing. 1981.
42 For an overview of intelligent facades, see Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. Intelligent Skins. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 2002. For a selection of case studies in an Asian context, see Harrison, A. Loe, E. and Read, J. Intelligent Building in South East Asia. London: Taylor and Francis. 1998. 43 See Baird, G. The Architectural Expression of Environmental Control Systems. London: Taylor and
Francis. 2001.
44 See Bosoni, B. Jean Nouvel: Architecture and Design 1976–1995, Milan: Skira Editore, 1997. 45 See Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. Intelligent Skins. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.
46 Anshuman, S. ‘Responsiveness and Social Expression: Seeking Human Embodiment in Intelligent Façades’. Paper presented at ACADIA 05, Savannah (Georgia). 2005.
47 The trajectory of design science in education can be traced to the 1958 RIBA Conference on Architectural Education. The theme of design science in terms of literal and metaphorical impact on composition is explored in Moloney, J. ‘Architectural Science: Literal and Notional Force Fields’, in Proceeding of New Constellations: Art, Science and Society. Sydney. 2006.
48 Anshuman undertakes a review of intelligent facades and observes that most ‘invite little bodily participation both from the occupants’ perspective within the building and larger urban participation from the outside’. Anshuman, S. ‘Responsiveness and Social Expression: Seeking Human Embodiment in Intelligent Façades’. Paper presented at ACADIA 05, Savannah (Georgia). 2005. p. 14. 49 See Craig, D. J. ‘The Future Tents: Kinetic Sculptor Chuck Hoberman Expands the Boundaries of
Design’. Columbia Magazine. 2006; Spring.
50 See Fox, M. A. and Yeh, B. P. ‘Intelligent Kinetic Systems in Architecture’, in Nixon, P., Lacey, G. and Dobson, S. (eds) Managing Interactions in Smart Environments: First International Workshop, London: Springer, 2000; p. 99.
51 See Fox, M. A. and Kemp, M. Interactive Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. 2009. p. 29.
52 See Oosterhuis, K. and Xia, X. (eds) Interactive Architecture. Rotterdam: Episode Publishers. 2007. 53 See Reynolds, C. W. ‘Flocks, Herds and Schools: A Distributed Behavioral Model’. Computer
Graphics. 1987; 21.
54 See Tizonis, A. Movement, Structure and the Work of Santiago Calatrava. Berlin: Birkhauser, 1995. 55 See Kronenburg, R. Flexible: Architecture That Responds to Change. London: Lawrence King
Publishing. 2007.
56 Zuk, W. and Clark, R. H. Kinetic Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970. 57 See Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002.
58 The generally accepted scientifi c approach to measuring human perception of speed is to measure the time taken for an object or event to cross an arc of vision. That is, the eye orientation is assumed to be fi xed giving a total visual fi eld of approximately 180 degrees. Anything that crosses this fi eld in less then fi ve seconds starts to blur, therefore the upper threshold of accurate motion detection is approximately 45 degrees per second. The lower threshold is based on the stimulus of the eye. If no change in perception of an element within the visual fi eld occurs after more than two or three seconds, the object is perceived as stationary. Vision research is an extremely large and progressive fi eld, but for the purposes of motion detection a key reference is: Borst, A. and Egelhaaf, M. ‘Principles of Visual Motion Detection’. Trends in Neurosciences. 1989; vol. 12. 59 See Zuk, W. and Clark, R. H. Kinetic Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.
p. 24.
60 Zuk, W. and Clark, R. H. Kinetic Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970. p. 154. 61 The emphasis is on the wider context at the beginning of the twentieth century, where Jormakka
proposes that motion was closely studied in painting and sculpture. Paul Klee’s rejection of G. E. Lessing’s distinction between the arts of time and space is referenced, as are the Italian futurist painters and sculptors. The Futurist agenda is explored through Umberto Boccioni’s double conception of form – ‘form in movement (relative movement) and movement in form (absolute movement)’. The continuation of the theme of motion in the fi ne arts is traced to the Bauhaus, in particular Wassily Kandinsky. In terms of architecture, the fi rst reference is to Jugendstil designer Henry van de Velde, who is associated with Kandinsky’s painting. The positioning of architecture within the context of the twentieth century avant-garde is continued in a section titled ‘The Language of Speed’, in which the correlation of Erich Mendelson’s ‘fl uid forms’ to the force lines of electromagnetic fi elds is cited. See Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture, Basel: Birkhausser. 2002.
62 Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 17. 63 Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 20.
Notes
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64 Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 21. 65 Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 26. 66 Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 32. 67 Saggio, A. ‘Interactivity at the Centre of Architectural Research’, Architectural Design. 2005; 75(1):
23–29.
68 As discussed earlier in Chapter 2, the kinetic facade of the Institut du Monde Arabe has a history of mechanical failure. Buckminster Fuller’s US pavilion for Expo’ 67 consisted of a 200-foot-tall geodesic dome clad in acrylic panels. A sunshading system based on automated blinds was implemented, but the ambitious goal of tracking sun position through a computer control system was not implemented. The blind motor mechanisms were constantly failing during its life. A recent account of the project can be found in Massey, J. ‘Buckminster Fuller’s Cybernetic Pastoral: The United States Pavilion at Expo 67’. Journal of Architecture. 2006; vol. 11.
69 See Moussavi, F. and Kubo, M. The Function of Ornament, New York: Actar. 2006. Foreword. 70 See dECOi Architects, ‘Technological Latency: From Autoplastic to Alloplastic’. p. 138. 71 See Jormakka, K. Flying Dutchmen: Motion in Architecture. Basel: Birkhausser. 2002. p. 47. 72 See Mathews, S. ‘The Fun Palace as Virtual Architecture: Cedric Price and the Practices of
Indeterminancy’. Journal of Architectural Education. 2006; vol. 59: 42. 73 See Deleuze, G. Bergsonism. New York: Zone Books. 1988. p. 42. 74 See Deleuze, G. Bergsonism. New York: Zone Books. 1988. p. 43. 75 See Deleuze, G. Bergsonism. New York: Zone Books. 1988. p. 43.
Chapter 3
1 Kaufmann, E. Architecture in the Age of Reason: Baroque and Post-Baroque in England, Italy and
France. New York: Dover Publications. 1955. p. 82.
2 Kaufmann, E. Architecture in the Age of Reason: Baroque and Post-Baroque in England, Italy and
France. New York: Dover Publications. 1955. p. 78.
3 Kaufmann, E. Architecture in the Age of Reason: Baroque and Post-Baroque in England, Italy and
France. New York: Dover Publications. 1955. p. 78.
4 See Wittkower, R. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. 1999. p. 41.
5 See Hersey, G. ‘The Renaissance Matrix’. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 1977; vol. 36: 257.
6 See Wittkower, R. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. 1999. p. 109.
7 While there is prior evidence of symmetry in architecture, Alberti is credited as the fi rst theoretician