Learning Interactions

Brown and Campione’s (1996) investigation into communities of learners found participant structures that cultivated student-student and teacher-student discourse were favourable for “providing the format for novices to adopt the discourse structure, goals, values and belief systems of scientific practice” (Brown & Campione, 1996, p. 267). Shulman (2000) concluded contemporary strategies of teaching demand discussion in the classroom in the form of dialogue, conversation, argument and verbal exchange. He viewed such exchanges as essential social expressions for abstract understanding and surmounting illusions of understanding. Dorster, Jackson and Smith’s (1997) research established students reacted positively to classroom discussion about alternative solutions to problems, which led to a better appreciation of the material. Hollander (2002) noted, despite agreement in the higher education literature regarding a link between classroom discussions and growth in student learning, there can be difficulties with the organisational elements in that some students may be overly talkative or too reticent, the content may be problematic, or students may lack the appropriate skills to participate in effective discussions. The findings of Miller (1990) highlighted a potential problem for students who need explicit direction or instruction and practice in asking questions and giving responses, in order to benefit from intellectually engaging discussion.

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While educators, researchers and theorists are in agreement about the value of discussion for academic development, students’ attitudes are also key to the success of this pedagogy. Dorster et al.’s (1997) study pointed to positive feelings about discussion amongst students, yet did not present information about the students’ capacity to make use of the potential of a classroom discussion. Pontecorvo (1987) claimed students’ perspectives in utilising discussion as a learning activity requires a collective approach and problematic situation to observe the components for a knowledge-building session. Rather than being a passive spectator of people or activities, the learner must be able to develop an active constituent of their own learning and be “continuously involved in cognition about self and environment” (Winne & Butler, 1994, p. 573).

Butler (1998) extended the hypothesis of Winne and Marx (1982), who found students interpreted teachers’ instructions according to their own previous knowledge and

motivations. She reconceptualised Vygotsky’s (1978) view to a position where learners design their own knowledge rather than the teacher building the intended knowledge. The influence of relationships that exist between students and teachers to yield more learning in some lessons than others revolves around a number of criteria. Morgan and Morris (1999) identified student interest, student self-efficacy, teacher control, teacher methods,

interpersonal skills, personalities and emotions all play a part in successful student learning.

Learners from a variety of public and private school backgrounds who connect in a new academic community are involved in a process of interacting with teachers and others to understand how they can achieve their goals. Student literacy improves when they identify context and nuances and recognise they are not just learning new rules and knowledge, but also a new culture (Cruz & Duff, 1997).

The transition from school to university presents challenges for students who are unfamiliar with the adjustments that need to be made. Those who are unmotivated and reluctant to put in effort to engage may even be indifferent, since motivation is intrinsic to changing one’s thinking (Hestor, 1994) and affective, sociocultural and risk-taking

characteristics of cognition are the very source of intellectual power. When students perfect or harness these skills they are able to use reliable cognitive mechanisms like critical

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realisation is born that alternative explanations can be brought to bear on accepted beliefs and tradition(Chory & McCroskey, 1999).

Teaching styles and student roles evident in UAE government schools are considerably different from Westernised models (Bleakley, Brice & Bligh, 2008) and according to McLaughlin and Durrant (2016) the more individualistic features of learning found in Westernised universities do not generally translate well in Emirati settings. Western educators in an Arab context are frequently frustrated by students’ ability to memorise numerous volumes of notes and text book material, yet the skills required at undergraduate level to invoke critical examination and independent thinking are deficient (Madsen & Cook, 2010). According to Bumbuc and Pasca (2011) independent thinking is difficult for students who are generally more familiar with a restrictive teacher and place of learning, and where knowledge exists outside the learner. In such environments the subject is delivered and presented in the form of unchallengeable truths and discrete information, and concepts are preferential over large ideas. Bumbuc and Pasca(2011) found students were inculcated into a mindset of getting the “right answer” by working alone in a generally competitive way on skill-based assignments that promoted uniformity. When used excessively this form of passive learning removed opportunities to reach any deep understanding of the subject matter.

Madsen (2009b) identified an important change in student learning focused on moving away from rote memorisation and passive pedagogies to more active engagement and stimulating pedagogies. Activities and assignments, such as group projects, classroom discussions and personal reflection all provided transformational experiences which fostered students’ academic and personal development. The students in Madsen’s research came from rote-based learning environments to a college that promoted outcome-based learning,

explicitly requiring students to consider accountability, openness, success, excellence, team work and professionalism. Solas and Wilson (2015) found students responded to teachers who encouraged new ways of learning by collaborating with their peers. This brought about improved study habits, better performance and a change to active participation in their learning.

The introduction of modern, pioneering learning technologies also motivated different approaches to learning which students were encouraged to embrace. King (2003) found

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significant links between learning assignments, activities and transformational learning in her study of adults in learning environments. Transformation was also evident in the research conducted by Solas and Wilson (2015), who found that their students had transformed their learning habits through the kinds of activities employed. This was achieved in part by gamification and developing new mental schema through a social constructivist paradigm. The techniques they employed promoted active, social pathways for learning in the

classroom, and these interactions with peers facilitated a transformation in attitudes towards learning.

Madsen and Cook (2010) observed that understanding the process of transformation and change students undergo during their higher education needed a sympathetic grasp of their past schooling, pedagogical experience and familial influences. They recommended closer scrutiny of students’ primary and secondary schooling, since these experiences combined to shape the mindset and values of undergraduates. According to Madsen (2009b), the students at ADWC appeared to have been exposed to a range of learning experiences that were very different from those they had encountered at school.

According to Bhabba (1994), female Emirati students in universities become part of an increasingly interconnected world through their educators, whose knowledge and experiences in the classroom reflect third space theory.English (2003)described international instructors as global teachers who work in diverse geographical locations. Bhabba’s (1994)theoryof “third space” is described as a place of hybridity, emanating from cross-cultural interaction that manifests as an internal and external state of being. He viewed hybridity as “the ‘third space’ which enables other positions to emerge” (p. 211) and new knowledge to grow, and allows individuals to “elude the politics of polarity” (p.39) for an improved social and cultural perspective. Students occupy this third space where differing or varied beliefs, thought processes, ways of knowing, and experiences interact and find symmetry. Wang (2007)described third space as a position where one discovers a sense of proportion between what may be construed as seemingly oppositional forces, ideologies or thought processes. She argued they have the opportunity to move “between, beyond, and with the dual forces simultaneously” (p. 30). In this movement of attitudes towards learning, according to Vadeboncoeur, Hirst andKostogriz (2006), “our memories and experiences, identities and identifications, discourses and social languages” (p. 163) are to be found in assorted and

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shared discourses. The shared discourse between students and their teachers enables change in approaches to learning and builds a bridge between experiences and culture to form a third space (Bhabba, 1994).Where social interaction, mutual discourse and new knowledge exist “there is no dominant correct meaning prevalent” (Knain, 2006, p. 657) since a new

construction of meaning is negotiated within a new context.

2.3.3 Life Experiences

Teachers who do not recognise the importance of incorporating students’ life

experiences into their practice miss opportunities for students to add local knowledge, and more importantly, create “dis-invitations” for students to contribute in classroom discourse. The use of an instructional script by the teacher, based on their own cultural reference, poses further limitations where it is the only one to be used in an activity (Bumbuc & Pasca, 2011).

Highly educated Emirati women are considered to be a public representation of power, status and family honour (Nashif, 2000; Salloum, 2003; Whiteoak et al., 2006).In the UAE higher education for women is promoted, supported by government (UNESCO, 2003; Whiteoak, Crawford, & Mapstone, 2006) and highly desired by society (Al Fahim, 1995; Salloum, 2003). However, according to Halbach (2002), the requirement for students to adapt their approaches to learning in higher education is problematic, and the inclusion of “Western values” (Garson, 2005, p. 322) is a complex issue that increases the demand placed on

students. “Western” educational theories and practices (Bleakley, Brice & Bligh, 2008; Garson, 2005; Halbach, 2002) embedded in Western concepts of lifelong learning, reflection, critical thinking and experiential learning have therefore been brought to students through external methodological approaches that embody different beliefs and value systems to those of their own community.

Changing the approaches to learning of Emirati students in a structure of “third space” (Bhabba, 1994) requires acknowledgment of their experiences in order to build instructive moments relevant to their lives. This creates a bridge between the content of the education and their personal experiences for optimal opportunities for change. Families in the UAE have the option of sending their children to private or public schools, and for undergraduates entering higher education, the view is that their schooling plays an important part in their academic success. The number of Emiratis enrolled in private schools in Dubai rose by 3.2% in 2014, and based on Knowledge Human and Development Authority (KHDA 2014)

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records, they have doubled since 2001. The figures also show that Emiratis accounted for 12.7% of pupils in private schools, the second largest group of students in the private system. According to a 2012 report, 65% of Emirati students in private schools attended American programs of study and 15% of Emirati students were enrolled in both publicly funded government schools and British curriculum learning entities (KHDA, 2012).

The Dubai Private Education Landscape Report (2014)showed that nearly 31,000 UAE nationals were registered in private schools in Dubai in 2013-2014, with a total of 13,718 girls and 17,276 boys enrolled in a variety of educational institutions. The report cites the main reason for parents choosing private schools as “better teaching and learning”. Parents believed private schools provided better English language instruction, had better school leadership, were more conveniently located and offered superior extra-curricular activities for their children (KHDA, 2012). The Emiratis in Dubai Education (KHDA, 2012)report also confirmed in international standardised test results “Emirati students in Dubai private schools outperformed both Emiratis in public schools and pupils in other participating Arab countries in reading and mathematical and science literacy”.

This increasing interest in private education by Emirati families has raised concerns about preserving national identity. In the UAE, federal and local government bodies have included this issue in future development plans (Preserving Emirati Identity, UAE paper, 2011). Abdullah Al Shaibani, the secretary-general of the Dubai Executive Council,

commented that “youth is the future of any nation, so preserving Emirati national identity is crucial to us in light of the current demographics” (2011, p. 1). He further elaborated that education plays a pivotal role in preserving national identity amongst young people, and stated these policies were already part of the state curriculum in public schools but needed to be integrated into the private school sector (Preserving Emirati Identity, UAE paper, 2011). The Dubai Partnership Agency’s encouragement of appropriate policies and collaboration between private and public entities was initiated by the Dubai government as a national priority.

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2.4 Relationships with Teachers