Lev Vygotsky

Like Piaget, Russian Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) also believed that children actively construct their knowledge (Bjorkland, 2012). But Vygotsky (1978) countered Piaget’s view that thinking was largely an individual endeavour and that other people’s influence is of lesser importance. Instead, Vygotsky proposed a participation model of learning in which the internalisation of

25 knowledge is derived through social interaction. Vygotsky’s ideas were heavily influenced by Karl Marx, whose critique of the capitalist economic system (‘Das Kapital’) was published in 1867. Marx’s theory of society takes the view that historical and societal changes produce changes in human nature (Cole & Scribner, 1978). Vygotsky related this proposition to concrete psychological questions, drawing on Engels’ (1883) concept of human labour and tool use as a means by which man changes nature and transforms himself (Cole & Scribner, 1978).

The concepts of access and mediation are central to Vygotsky’s theory, as he claims that human action on both the individual and social planes is mediated by tools and signs (Wertsch, 1991). Vygotsky proposed that all higher mental functions have social origins, that is, they first appear in interactions between people before they are then internalised. Vygotsky termed the process by which the social becomes the psychological ‘internalisation’, proposing that higher cognitive processes are formed in structures that are transmitted by others in processes such as co- operative activities, social interaction and speech (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 29). Vygotsky’s explanation for how knowledge is internalised suggests peers contribute to this process as co- operative play amongst young children provides opportunities for children to communicate ideas and problem solve with each other.

Vygotsky’s concept of mediation is key to understanding how mental activity is connected to cultural, historical and institutional settings. Such settings are produced and reproduced through human action (Wertsch, 1994). The psychological tools and signs that mediate human action include language, writing, and systems for counting, diagrams and maps (Vygotsky, 1981). The child gradually internalises the sociohistorical knowledge, beliefs and psychological tools of their community over time (Edwards, 2005). Therefore the social interaction between peers cannot be understood without consideration of the historical, cultural context within which the interaction takes place. In social and cultural settings, the use of psychological tools mediates the development of children’s higher mental functions such as thinking, problem-solving and reasoning (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1999). Active participation in social and cultural contexts results in the development of individuals’ cognitive abilities and learning is socially constructed during activity with others. Peers mediate each other’s learning as they internalise knowledge and skills from each other (King, 1999). Bodrova and Leong (2007) emphasised the importance of cultural and social settings and the role of mediation in knowledge construction, by asserting that a child’s actions on objects are beneficial for development, only as long as they are included in a social context and mediated by others.

26 Vygotsky emphasised the centrality of culture and gave a primary role to external social forces in development, by way of the social plane. He claimed that cognitive development must be understood in terms of the particular social, cultural and historical processes of people’s experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore individuals from different societies and cultures are likely to display differences in how they think and solve problems (Hoffnung et al., 2010). Vygotsky (1978) theorised that children learn culturally relevant concepts and ways of thinking as they observe and participate in the everyday lives of their families, peer group and communities. Vygotsky (1962) believed that the development of memory, reasoning and attention came about from learning the language, mathematical systems and memory strategies which society has invented.

Language plays an important role in peer learning as children use language to share ideas and problem solve together. Vygotsky (1962) believed language shapes thought and that young children use language to not only communicate with others but to guide their thinking and plan and monitor or regulate their behaviour. He proposed that initially language and thought develop independently of each other and children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Vygotsky, 1962). Vygotsky (1962) described a transition period between the ages of three and seven in which children internalise their social or external speech and this becomes their thoughts. The process of moving from external to internal speech is described as having three distinct phrases: social speech, egocentric speech and inner speech (LeFrancois, 2000). Vygotsky (1986) indicated that the decline and then disappearance of egocentric speech reflected the internalisation of mental tools, making higher mental functioning possible. Peer interactions in early childhood settings assist this transition from external to internal speech.

The zone of proximal development is a key concept within Vygotsky’s theory and it highlights the potential for children to share their expertise for the benefit of each other. Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) defined it as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”. The zone of

27 proximal development does not exist independently of the process of joint activity. Rather it is created through the course of social interaction and children learn from others more competent in the use of culturally appropriate tools ((Tudge & Winterhoff, 1999). For example, a child who comes from a cultural setting where cooking is part of everyday life, might teach another child how to prepare and cook food. The zone of proximal development recognises the potential for learning rather than defining a child’s capability by what they have achieved developmentally at a particular point in time. Tutoring by a more competent peer can be an effective aid in assisting learning in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). What the child can achieve with help such as the support of others and the environment is termed ‘assisted performance’ (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 30). Tharp and Gallimore (1988, p. 31) proposed a definition of teaching that recognises the critical role of assisted performance: “teaching consists in assisting performance through the ZPD. Teaching can be said to occur when assistance is offered at points in the ZPD at which performance requires assistance”. More capable peers are recognised by Tharp and Gallimore as able to offer assisted performance across a range of problem-solving activities.

‘Scaffolding’ is a term coined by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), based on Vygotsky’s theorising, to describe the support given by adults or more capable peers within the zone of proximal development, thus ensuring success in the child’s attempts to learn. Scaffolding involves supporting children’s efforts by breaking down aspects of a task and focusing a child’s attention towards a goal (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). This support can be provided by more capable peers and Vygotsky (1978) emphasised the importance of mixed-age grouping of children as this means they can access more knowledgeable peers and in doing so, the more capable child can act as a resource for others. An important part of scaffolding is the idea of contingency management, and this occurs when the level of support is adjusted by the more capable child, so that their peer achieves success (Tharp & Gallimore, 1991).

A range of research has found evidence of the benefits of peer learning, for both younger and older children, when children are grouped in mixed age settings (Chung & Walsh, 2006; Fair et al, 2005; Gray, 2011; Haworth et al., 2006; Hyun & Davis, 2005; Jones, 2007; Maynard, 2002; Park & Lee, 2015). Maynard (2002) filmed, then analysed the behaviours of pairs of siblings in 36 different Mayan households in a Mexican village. The focus was on dyads where the younger

28 child was around two years old and the older child was anywhere between three and 11. Children were filmed as they played naturally at everyday activities such as caring for baby dolls, playing soccer and pretend cooking. Maynard found that within the dyads the older children increased the complexity and sociability of the two year old’s play by the older children guiding their younger siblings to acquire physical skills and knowledge about appropriate cultural practices. The older children gave verbal explanations of how to play particular roles, provided their younger siblings with appropriate props and modified their own activities to ensure the two year olds could be successful in their play (Maynard, 2002). The younger children benefited from these interactions as their older siblings scaffolded their play within their zone of proximal development.