Magnesium Compositions

Refractory materials are available in five classes of acid-resistant composition [119]:

1. Magnesia or magnesite (MgO).

2. Magnesia in combination with chromium-containing materials such as Cr₂O₃[62]. If chromium is the major component, then it is referred to as chrome-magnesite.

If magnesia is the predominant component, then it is referred to as magnesite-chrome.

Moisture Conversion Table

Dew Point

Vapor Pressure (Water=Ice in Equilibrium) (mmHg)

Water Content (ppm) on Volume Basis at 760 mmHg

Relative Humidity at 708F (%)

Moisture (ppm) on Weight Basis in Air

8C 8F

16 þ3 1.132 1,490 6.03 925

14 þ7 1.361 1,790 7.25 1,110

12 þ10 1.632 2,150 8.69 1,335

10 þ14 1.950 2,570 10.4 1,596

8 þ18 2.326 3,060 12.4 1,900

6 þ21 2.765 3,640 14.7 2,260

4 þ25 3.280 4,320 17.5 2,680

2 þ28 3.880 5,100 20.7 3,170

0 þ32 4.579 6,020 24.4 3,640

þ2 þ36 5.294 6,970 28.2 4,330

þ4 þ39 6.101 8,030 2.5 4,990

þ6 þ43 7.013 9,230 37.4 5,730

þ8 þ46 8.045 10,590 42.9 6,580

þ10 þ50 9.029 12,120 49.1 7,530

þ12 þ54 10.52 13,840 56.1 8,600

þ14 þ57 1.99 15,780 63.9 9,800

þ16 þ61 13.63 17,930 72.6 11,140

þ18 þ64 15.48 20,370 82.5 12,650

þ20 þ68 17.54 23,080 93.5 14,330

þ22 þ7135 19.827 26,088 16,699

þ24 þ75 22.377 29,443 18,847

þ26 þ79 25.209 33,169 21,232

þ28 þ82 28.349 37,301 23,877

þ30 þ86 31.824 41,874 26,804

Source: From R.W. Blumenthal and A.T. Melville, Hot gas measuring probe, U.S. Patent 4,588,493 (May 13, 1986).

3. Magnesia in combination with spinel (magnesium aluminum silicate).

4. Magnesia in combination with 2.5 or 4.5% carbon, where carbon is in the form of pitch, which bonds refractory aggregates.

5. Dolomite, which is composed of approximately equal amounts of MgCO3and CaCO3. 1.8.1.2 Compositions Containing Aluminum Oxide

Another class of refractory compositions is based on high alumina (Al2O3) materials that contain more than 47.5% Al2O3. There are a number of these materials [82,119].

1. Mullite brick, which is compositionally 71.8% Al₂O₃and 28% SiO₂. This material has excellent volume stability and strength at high temperatures.

2. Chemically bonded, normally phosphate-bonded, brick that reacts to form aluminum orthophosphate (AlPO4).

Thermometer

Coolant Gas outlet

Gas inlet

Glass container

Cup

1 2

3

FIGURE 1.117 Dew cup instrument. (From R. Nemenyi and G. Bennett, Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment, Franklin Book Co., 1995, pp. 22–1022.)

1 2

4

FIGURE 1.118 Dew-point measurement by the Peltier effect. (From R. Nemenyi and G. Bennett, Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment, Franklin Book Co., 1995, pp. 22–1022.)

3. Alumina-chrome brick, which is composed of a solid solution of chromium oxide (Cr2O3) and a high-purity alumina.

4. Alumina-carbon brick, which is a resin-bonded high alumina graphite-containing composition.

1.8.1.3 Fireclay Compositions

Compositionally, fireclay is a hydrated aluminum silicate (Al2O32SiO22H2O). After dehy-dration at elevated temperatures, the residual material should contain 45.9% alumina and 54.1% silica. There are five standard ASTM classifications of firebrick [119]:

1. Super-duty fireclay contains 40–45% Al2O3. This is the refractory classification with the greatest high-temperature volume stability and spalling resistance.

2. High-duty fireclay is slightly less refractory than the super-duty type but is still spalling-or slag-resistant.

3. Medium-duty fireclay is suitable for moderately severe applications.

4. Low-duty fireclay is suitable for moderate temperature application only.

5. Semisilica brick contains only 15–18% alumina. It exhibits good high-temperature load-bearing capacity and volume stability.

Radiation source

Snell's cone

Scatter photodetector

Mirror

Collimator a a

FIGURE 1.119 Continuous on-line dew-point monitor. (From W. Cole, Heat Treating, March 1993, 19–

20.)

FIGURE 1.120 Lithium chloride dew-point probe. (From M.J. Hill, The efficient use of atmospheres in a continuous furnace using the concept of zoning, Int. Foundry Heat Treat. Conf., Johannesburg, S.

Africa, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. 1–30.)

1.8.1.4 Silica Refractories

Silica refractories are used for high-temperature (3080–31108F) melting applications. They are capable of withstanding pressures up to 50 psi and are chemically resistant to acid slag.

They do not undergo spalling at temperatures above 12008F. There are two ASTM classifi-cations of silica firebrick: Type A and Type B.

1.8.1.5 Monolithic Refractories

Monolithic refractories are special mixes or blends of dry granular or cohesive plastic materials that form a virtually joint-free lining [119]. They are classified as plastic refractories [120]; ramming mixes, which are denser and stronger than plastic refractories; gunning mixes, which may be pneumatically bonded to a furnace wall; and castables, or refractory concrete.

Plastic refractories are prepared from fireclay, high-alumina graphite, alumina-chrome, and other materials.

Numerous other materials are developed, for example high-alumina fiber [121], glass fiber [122], and microporous-insulating refractories [123], to provide greater resistance to slag attack, low thermal expansion, increased resistance to spalling, reduced impurities, improved hot strength, acceptable creep resistance, and improved resistance to thermal shock and corrosion [119].

955ⴗC 900ⴗC

845ⴗC 790ⴗC 7.5

7.0

Electrical resistance, Ω

6.5

0 0.4

Carbon content, %

0.8 1.2

FIGURE 1.121 Electrical resistance of steel vs. carbon content at various temperatures. (From R. Nemenyi and G. Bennett, Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment, Franklin Book Co., 1995, pp. 22–1022.)

Furnace wall Gate valve

Sample

holder Chamber Chamber plug

Rod

FIGURE 1.122 Apparatus for determination of carbon content by shim-stock exposure and measure-ment. (From R.N. Blumenthal and R. Hlasny, Heat Treating, August 1991.)

The dimensional change of a material with respect to changes in temperature is described by DL₀

L₀ ¼ a( T  T0)

where a is the coefficient of linear expansion. Table 1.48 provides viral coefficients to calculate the percent of linear expansion with respect to its length at 20 8C (293 K) for various materials.

The value of DL0=L₀ is of considerable value when estimating the impact of a known temperature change ( DT) across a wall [(hot face temperature)  (cold face temperature)] and refractory deformation. If the modulus of elasticity (E) is known, it is possible to calculate the stress s from

s¼ E a(T2  T1)

Thermal conductivity d is calculated from the heat capacity Cp: d¼ k=Cp r

where k is the thermal conductivity, d is thermal diffusivity, and r is 123 density.

Figure 1.123 and Table 1.49 provide heat capacity data as a function of temperature for various simple refractory compositions [124]. Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature is illustrated in Figure 1.124 [124]. Thermal conductivity data for firebrick and alumina are provided in Figure 1.125 and Figure 1.126, respectively [124].

For firebrick, the thermal conductivity k is dependent on bulk density (BD) [124]:

k₅₀₀ ^_F [Btu in:=(h ft² 8F)] ¼ 0:03455BD (lb =ft³)  0:2545 k₂₆₀ ^_C [W =(mK)] ¼ 0:3110 r_b (g =cm³)  0:0367

For insulating castables, the thermal conductivity may be calculated from [124]

k₅₀₀ ^_F [Btu in:=(h ft² 8F)] ¼ 0:04375BD (lb=ft³)  0:4250 k260 ^C [W =(mK)] ¼ 0:3939 r_b (g =cm³)  0:0613

1.8.3 F^URNACE R^EFRACTORY INSTALLATION

Traditionally, firebrick was used to reline heat treatment furnaces. Today, refractory mater-ials can be installed in a number of ways. Furnaces may be lined with brick or refractory blankets, or they may be lined with refractory modules as shown in Figure 1.127.

1.9 FANS

A fan, blower, or compressor may be selected to move air or gas. They differ from each other in their operational pressure as shown in Table 1.50 [125].

This section presents an overview of the selection and operation of a fan that can be used in heat treatment equipment.

1.9.1 CALCULATION OF F^AN PERFORMANCE (T^HE F^AN L^AWS)

The work done by a fan is related to the volume change of the gas moved due to compression (see Figure 1.128) and is calculated from

TABLE 1.48

Virial Coefficient for Linear Thermal Expansion of Selected Solid Materials

100DLt=L293¼A þ B (10^4T ) þ C (10^4T )²þD (10^4T )³ (T ; K )

Material MP (K) A B C D Note

Al2O3(hex.) 2327 0.180 þ5.494 þ22.520 22.940 1

C2O 3200 0.321 þ10.590 þ13.100 14.050

Cr2O3(hex.) 2603 0.280 þ10.380 31.220 þ106.200 2

Fe2O3(trig.) 1838 2.537 þ7.300 þ49.640 114.000 3

MgO 3125 0.326 þ10.400 þ25.810 28.340

SiO2(lo qtz.) ~873 (tr.) 0.236 þ6.912 þ0.556 þ1312.00 4

SiO2(hi qtz.) 1743 (tr.) þ1.040 þ0.068 þ1.660 þ18.000 Est.

SiO2(vitr.) ~1273 (cryst.) 0.015 þ0.397 þ4.666 34.460

ZrO2(monocl.) 2988 0.314 þ13.040 90.920 þ408.400 5

Al6Si2O13 2193 0.0929 þ2.580 þ21.530 45.720

CaAl2O4 1873 0.107 þ2.578 þ39.680 90.770

Ca2SiO4 2403 0.345 þ1.260 þ16.560 þ27.330

MgAl2O4 2408 0.183 þ5.456 þ28.060 41.810

Mg2Al4Si5O18 ~1773 þ0.00911 0.912 þ20.640 3.921 6

MgCr2O4 2673 0.176 þ5.822 þ55.80 þ23.360

MgFe2O4 2023 0.218 þ6.003 þ52.560 94.040

Mg2SiO4 2183 0.238 þ7.166 þ33.810 37.970

Mg2TiO4 ~2100 0.249 þ8.294 þ4.074 þ94.300

ZrSiO4 2673 0.136 þ5.337 30.420 þ209.400

AIN (hex.) ~2500 0.0809 þ1.806 þ31.760 72.560

B4C (rhomb.) 2623 0.114 þ3.523 þ12.660 5.085 8

BN ~3273 (sub.) 0.00133 1.278 þ49.110 86.350

SiC ~2923 (dec.) 0.0991 þ2.970 þ13.880 15.480

TiC ~3410 0.177 þ5.710 þ1.740 þ2.412

C (graphite) ~3900 0.0550 þ1.552 þ12.050 10.330 9

C (graphite) ~3900 0.1580 þ5.561 8.850 þ35.550 9

C (vir.) ~2700 (cryst.) 0.890 þ3.015 þ1.285 þ17.240

Fe 1800 0.289 þ7.350 þ93.300 314.000 10

Notes:

1. Cryst. exp. c=a ~ 1.1.

2. Cryst. exp. a=c ~ 1.3.

3. Cryst. exp. a=c ~ 1.26.

4. Cryst. exp. a=c ~ 1.58.

5. Cryst. exp. c=b ~ 2.5.

6. Cordierite refractory.

7. Cryst. exp. a=c ~ 1.18.

8. Cryst exp. ~ isotrop.

9. Grade ATJ, parallel and perpendicular to the textural grain, respectively. Cryst. exp. c=a ~10.

10. Numerous steels and SS agree with Fe within ~+15%.

Work¼ Dp  V

where Dp is the pressure increase across the fan and V is the volume of the gas moved.

The pressure difference (Dp) is referred to as head and is usually quantified in inches of water.

Static pressure (SP) is the pressure on the walls, ducts, and piping. The velocity pressure required to move the gas is the difference between total pressure and the static head.

Air horsepower (Ahp) output is defined as

Ahp¼ VH 6356

where V is the volumetric flow through the fan (ft³=min) and H is the head (Dp) across the fan.

The head may be static (Hs) or total (Ht):

H_t ¼ Hsþ Hs

Static air horsepower (Ahps) is the resistance that must be overcome and is related to static head. Total air horsepower (Ahpt) or power output is based on total head.

The static and mechanical efficiency is calculated from

E_s¼ Ahp_s power input Et ¼ Ahp_t

power input Cp, J/mol/K

γ, extrap

Transitions γ−Fe2O3 Chromia, Cr2O3 α- Fe2O3

Alumina, Al2O3

Zirconia, zrO2

SiO₂, Low quartz

TA.

0 30 50 70 90 110 130 150

500 1000 1500 2000

High quartz

V i t r e o u s s i l i c a , S i O₂ F e

M . P .

M . P .

M . P . M . P .

C a O

M g O . 9 5

Temperature, C FIGURE 1.123 Heat capacity of various refractory materials.

Head and horsepower vary inversely with absolute gas temperature T and absolute gas pressure P. This is calculated from

Corrected head (Ha) ¼ Hb

Pa Tb

P_b T_a Corrected horsepower ( Hpa) ¼ Hpb

Pa Tb

Pb Ta

where the subscript a indicates after and b indicates before.

The interrelationships of head, efficiency, volume, and horsepower are shown in Figure 1.129. A system resistance curve relates fan pressure and horsepower to flow as shown in Figure 1.130. The fan supply equals the demand at the intersection point. To conserve energy, TABLE 1.49

Molal Heat Capacity of Solid Substances [C_pin J=(mol K); T in K]

Cp¼a þ b (10^3T ) þ c (10^3T )²þd / (10^3T )

Formula a b c d Note

Al2O3 101.96 þ154.96 16.168 þ7.120 20.817

CaO 56.08 þ57.68 1.324 þ1.560 4.418

Cr2O3 152.00 þ137.14 3.568 þ3.120 9.585

Fe2O3 159.70 þ176.70 24.000 þ7.200 19.843 1

Fe0.95O 69.06 þ45.31 þ14.900 2.600 0.374 2

MgO 40.31 þ63.24 7.632 þ2.880 7.263

SiO2 60.09 þ77.09 þ3.384 0.160 10.558 3

ZrO2 123.32 þ60.88 þ22.320 1.600 3.370

Al6Si2O13 426.06 þ607.83 42.752 þ22.880 81.020 4

CaAl2O4 158.04 þ236.00 39.240 þ14.360 32.120

Ca2SiO4 172.25 þ182.73 þ3.768 þ1.580 17.372

CaTiO3 135.96 þ149.08 2.916 0.360 15.051

MgAl2O4 142.27 þ233.16 39.244 þ14.360 32.124 4

MgCr2O4 192.31 þ212.76 18.404 þ8.360 24.261

Mg2SiO4 140.71 þ191.48 4.236 þ8.040 21.790 5

MgTiO3 120.19 þ145.39 3.128 þ3.520 15.949

ZrSiO4 183.31 þ179.49 21.380 þ12.200 22.838

AlN 40.99 þ61.68 7.344 þ2.560 8.911

B4C 55.25 þ35.55 þ86.508 16.920 3.145

BN 24.82 þ37.02 þ19.324 5.560 6.814

SiC 40.10 þ55.08 0.876 þ2.040 8.312

TiC 59.89 þ65.44 7.964 þ2.760 8.911

C (graph.) 12.01 þ18.37 þ8.592 2.480 3.969 6

Notes:

1. Constants fit g-Fe2O3Tr. ~6308C; mp 15658C.

2. Melting point 13698C.

3. Constants fit high-quartz. Tr. ~5778C; mp 17238C.

4. Constants estimated as sum of CaOþ Al2O3and MgOþ Al2O3. 5. Melting point 19108C.

6. No reference nongraphitic carbon exists.

fan speed can be varied to match output pressure and system resistance for a given flow as shown in Figure 1.131. From these curves, it is evident that fan capacity Q, pressure P, and horsepower (hp) vary with speed and can be calculated as

Q1

Fan capacity and speed vary with the square root of pressure:

Vitreous SiO₂

ZrO₂ Quartz

log k, W/cm/K

0.0 20 100 200 400 600 1000 1500 2500 1.0

0.5

Thermal conductivity, k, W/cm/K

0.04

FIGURE 1.124 Thermal conductivity for various refractory materials.

rpm₁

Horsepower varies with pressure:

hp₁ hp2

¼ P₁ P2

 3=2

At constant pressure and density, for geometrically similar fans the capacity power and speed are calculated from the wheel diameter (dia):

Q1 If both the speed and diameter change, then

Q1

where d is the density of the gas transferred, b is the barometric pressure, and T is the absolute temperature.

At constant speed and capacity, hp₁

Transferring a constant amount of gas results in Q₁

7

1 — Pure mgo (reference curve) 2 — 85% Magnesite³² (see text) 3 — 98% Periclase (15.0% por.) 4 — 65% Magnesia (17.8% por.) 5 — 60% Magnesia (17.0% por.) 6 — 60% Mag.-chrome (15.1% por.) 7 — Chrome one refractory

o

+

x

log k, W/m/K

FIGURE 1.125 Thermal conductivity of firebrick.

Refractory type: 10 — Firebrick (18% Por.) 1.8 30

1.5

1.0

Single-point data:

Vitreous silica refractory

log k (W/m/K)

0.5

0.0 0 500 1000 1500

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 2800

50

FIGURE 1.126 Thermal conductivity of alumina.

hp₁ hp₂ ¼ d₂

d₁

 2

hp1

hp₂¼ b2

b₁

 2

¼ T1

T₂

 2

If both the temperature and pressure vary, then Q1

Q₂¼rpm1

rpm₂ ¼ P1

P₂T1

T₂

 1=2

hp₁ hp2

¼ P³₁ P³₂T₁

T2

 ¹⁼²

FIGURE 1.127 Car-bottom furnace lined with power-lock1 modules. (Courtesy of The Carborundum Company, Fibers Division.)

TABLE 1.50

Operational Pressures of Fans, Blowers, and Compressors

Machine Operational Pressure (psi)

Fan <1

Blower <50

Compressor >35

For geometrically similar fans, the flow, speed, and head are related by specific speed and specific diameter [125]. Specific speed (Ns) is that rpm at which a fan would operate if reduced proportionately in size so that it delivers 1 ft³=min of air at standard conditions against a 1 in.

H2O SP [125].

Ns¼rpm(ft³=min)¹⁼² SP³⁼⁴

The specific diameter D_sis the fan diameter D required to deliver 1 ft³=min standard air against 1 in. H₂O SP at a given speed

Ds¼ D(SP)¹⁼⁴ (ft³=min)¹⁼²

1.9.2 FANSELECTION

The first step in selecting a fan is to determine the system requirements. First determine the amount of gas to be moved, making appropriate corrections for temperature, density, and barometric pressure. If multiple fans are to be sued, divide the total volume by the number of fans.

Volume Compressor cycle

Compression phase Suction phase

3 1 2

4

Pressure

Discharge phase

FIGURE 1.128 Illustration of a fan pressure cycle.

Volume Horsepower

Horsepower

Total efficiency

Static efficiency

Head and effciency

Static pressure

Total pressure

FIGURE 1.129 Fan performance curve. (From R.J. Aberbach, Power, New York, NY.)

The second step is to determine SP where the fan will operate. This is done by plotting specific speed vs. specific diameter and static efficiency for the number of fans to be con-sidered as shown in Figure 1.132 [125].

The flow (ft³=min), SP, and specific speed (Ns) can be calculated from the nomogram shown in Figure 1.133 from the Ns. The specific diameter (Ds) is determined by calculation, and the type of fan required is identified from a graph such as Figure 1.132.

When selecting fans, consideration must be given to whether they will be installed in series or in parallel. When installed in series, each fan handles the same amount of gas and the volumetric capacity varies with the density of the gas. When installed in parallel, each fan handles only part of the total volume of gas.

When determining the system resistance, one must account for flow losses due to duct resistance and diameter (Figure 1.134), shape (Figure 1.135), and frictional losses in elbows in the duct system (Figure 1.136) [125].

1.9.3 FLOW CALIBRATION

The flow rate of the fan system can be determined after initial installation or at any time by placing a pitot tube in a straight length of duct at approximately 10 diameter lengths from either the inlet or the outlet side of the fan. Velocity pressure (Hv) is then determined at 20 different positions in the duct as shown in Figure 1.137. The square root of each velocity is determined and then averaged for the 20 readings.

The gas density ( D) is determined by correcting for temperature and pressure

D (lb =ft³) ¼ 0:075 530

460 þ local temperature ( ^F)

 

barometer reading 29:92

 

The ratio of standard to actual gas (air) density (K ) is determined as

K¼0:075 D The average air velocity V (ft=min) is calculated from

10

Flow, %

Static pressure and horsepower, %

A B

C D

0 20

40 System resistance Fan horsepower

Fan pressure

60 80 100 120

30 50 70 90 110

FIGURE 1.130 System resistance curve.

V ¼ 4000 ffiffiffiffiffiffi Hv

p

ave

The volume flow rate is determined by multiplying the linear flow rate by the cross-sectional area of the duct.

1.10 FIXTURE MATERIALS

Heat treatment conditions such as corrosive and reactive atmospheres and high temperatures provide an especially harsh environment for furnace fixtures: baskets, trays, chains, conveyor belts, and radiant tubes. This section provides an overview of typical heat-resistant alloys that are used for fixture construction.

1.10.1 C^OMMONH^IGH-T^EMPERATUREA^LLOYS

The most common heat-resistant alloy materials used for furnace fixture construction are wrought and cast materials of Fe–Cr–Ni, Fe–Ni–Cr, and Ni-based alloys. Data on the composition of selected alloys are provided in Table 1.51.

A number of alloying elements are used for heat-resistant materials [127]:

Chromium (Cr) improves oxidation resistance at temperatures below 9508C, improves resistance to sulfidation and carburization, exhibits poor nitriding resistance, increases high-temperature resistance.

Silicon (Si) improves resistance to sulfidation, nitriding, oxidation, and carburizing. In synergy with Cr, Si improves scale resilience.

Molybdenum (Mo) improves high-temperature resistance and creep strength and reduces oxidation resistance.

Nickel (Ni) improves resistance to carburization and nitriding and reduces sulfidation resistance.

Tungsten (W) has effects similar to those of Mo.

Carbon (C) improves strength, improves nitriding and carburizing resistance, reduces resistance to oxidation.

Flow output

Static pressure and horsepower

860 960

1160 rpm Static pressure

Horsepower

1060

860 1060

960

System resistance

FIGURE 1.131 System resistance curve variation with fan speed.

Yttrium (Y) and rhenium (Re) improve resistance to spalling, oxidation, carburizing, and sulfidation.

Aluminum (Al) acts independently of and synergistically with Cr to improve oxidation and sulfidation resistance and reduces nitriding resistance.

Titanium (Ti) imparts poor nitriding resistance.

Niobium (Nb) improves creep strength.

Manganese (Mn) improves high-temperature strength and creep but gives poor oxidation and nitriding resistance.

Cobalt (Co) improves sulfidation resistance.

High-temperature alloys should be selected with regard to resistance to combustion products (see Figure 1.138 and Figure 1.139), oxidation (Table 1.52), carburization (Table 1.53), nitriding (Table 1.54), molten salts (Table 1.55), and other severe envir-onments encountered in the particular heat treatment of interest [126].

1.11 PARTS WASHING 1.11.1 WASHING PROCESSES

Many parts enter the heat treatment shop with residual lubricants, coolants, or corrosion inhibitor films on the surface. These surface contaminants may contain graphite, molyb-denum, sulfide (MoS2), or compounds of chlorine, sulfur, silicon, phosphorus, or boron.

Their presence on the surface of parts to be heat treated may prevent uniform atmosphere diffusion or heat transfer (on heating or cooling) and lead to soft spotting or increased distortion before the heat treatment operation [129]. Degreasing may be performed before

20 Forward curved blade

radial blade Specific diameter, Ds

D_s—radial blade

E-radial blade

Static efficiency, E %

20

30

30

40

Specific speed, N_s, thousands

40

D_s—forward curved blade

D_s—air foil blade Radial tip blade D_s—radial tip blade

E—forward curved blade

E—airfoil blade Airfoil blade

E—Vaneaxial blade

Vaneaxial blade

D_s—Vaneaxial blade E—radial tip

blade

FIGURE 1.132 Static efficiency curves for various fan blade configurations. (From R.J. Aberbach, Power, New York, NY.)

or after the heat treatment process, or both. A schematic illustrating the process is shown in Figure 1.139.

Until recently, one of the most common parts cleaning operations was vapor degreasing.

The solvents that have been used for vapor degreasing include trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, percholoroethylene, and tetrachloroethane (see Figure 1.140) [129,131]. Cleaning with such solvents is expensive, in many cases toxic; they are often pollutants, and their use is accompanied by a high disposal cost.

An alternative to vapor degreasing using a chlorohydrocarbon is to use a hydrocarbon solvent. Hydrocarbon solvents for these processes typically exhibit flash points of more than 708C. The benefits of hydrocarbon-based parts cleaning processes include the follow-ing [132]:

1. They have no detrimental impact on the ozone layer.

2. They provide high solvent efficiency.

3. Petroleum solvents are noncorrosive.

4. Hydrocarbon solvents are relatively nontoxic and easy to handle.

5. The solvents are reusable.

6. There is no need for drainage or exhaust gas facilities.

Currently, systems employ a combination of vapor degreasing with hydrocarbon solvents and vacuum drying [132]. The relationship between the vapor pressure and the temperature of

100 inches Hg inche Hg

Required cm

Pivot line for Ns Pivot line for D

200

FIGURE 1.133 Nomogram for calculating fan performance parameters.

10

Air flow, cfm

0.01

200 300 400 500 500 800 7001,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800

600

0.04

0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2

Pressure loss, inches of water per 100 feet

0.4 0.6 2

Flow velocity, fpm

20

Flow velocity, fpm

300

100,0001,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 3,2003,600 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

Duct diameter, in.

Duct diameter, in.

FIGURE 1.134 Fan pressure loss with varying flow rates and duct diameters.

11

One side of rectangular duct (B)

One side of rectangular duct (A)

8

FIGURE 1.135 Equivalent round duct size conversion chart.

a typical hydrocarbon solvent used for this process and more traditional halogenated hydro-carbons is shown in Figure 1.140.

Currently, the most commonly used alternatives to solvent-based vapor degreasing are a water-based washing system. These systems include the following [129,131]:

Emuls ion cleane rs. An organic solvent is emulsified in water that contains various addi-tives such as surfactants to aid in the surface soil removal process.

Semia queous cleane rs. Parts may be cleaned using solvents such as terpenes, esters, or a blend of hydrocarbons. Residual solvents are removed as an emulsion by subsequent cleaning with water or surfactant.

Alkaline cleane rs. This process uses alkaline metal salts (also known as detergent builders) (see Table 1.56) that include a mixture of silicates, phosphates, and surfactant. These cleaning solutions are suitable for automated systems and heavily soiled parts.

Neutral cleane rs. These cleaning solutions are composed of water and are usually nontoxic surfactants. They are suitable for lightly soiled surfaces and are considerably less alkaline (neutral) than the alkaline cleaners described above.

A schematic of a water-based cleaning process is presented in Figure 1.141.

40.5 Radius ratio, R/D

Equivalent length, number of diameters

4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 4-piece elbows

Elbow of 5 or more pieces

FIGURE 1.136 Equivalent length chart for ducts with elbows.

4X X

Y X 2

2 Pitot tube positions

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.137 Recommended pitot placement positions for fan flow calibrations. (a) In rectangular duct; (b) in round duct, keep pitot tube within +0.5% of R and +18 of indicated positions.

TABLE 1.51

Nominal Compositions of Alloys Used in Laboratory and Field Tests^a

Composition (%)

Alloy (UNS No.) Ni Fe Co Cr Mo W Al Ti Si C Other

Cabot No. 214 75 2.5 2.0 16.0 0.5 0.5 4.5 — — — Y (present)

Hastelloy X (N06002) — 47 — 18.5 1.5 22.0 9.0 0.6 — — —

Alloy 600 (N06600) 72 8.0 1.0 15.5 — — 0.35^b 0.3^b — — —

Inconel 601 (N06601) Bal 14.0 — 25 — — 1.4 0.3 — — —

Cabot No. 625 (N06625) Bal 5.0 1.5 9.0 — 0.4 0.4^b — — — Cbþ Ta ¼ 3.5

Haynes No. 230 57 3.0 3.0 22.0 2.0 14.0 0.3 — — — 0.03 La

Hastelloy S 67 3.0 2.0 5.5 14.5 1.0 0.25 — — — 0.05 La

Waspaloy (N07001) 58 2.0 13.5 19.0 4.3 — 1.5 3.0 — — 0.05 Zr

RA 333 (N06333) 45 18.0 3.0 25.0 3.0 3.0 — — — — 1.25 Si

Haynes No. 188 (R30188) 22 3.0 39.0 22.0 — 14.0 — — — — 0.07 La

Alloy 800H (N08810) 32.5 44 2.0^b 21 — — 0.4 0.4 — — —

Haynes No. 556 20.0 31 18.0 22 3.0 2.5 0.2 — — — 0.8 Ta, 0.02 La

Multimet (R30155) 20.0 30 20.0 21 3.0 25 — — — — Chþ Ta ¼ 1.0

RA330 (N08330) 35.0 43 — 19 — — — — — — 1.25 Si

Type 304 SS (S30400) 9.0 Bal — — — — — — — — 2.0 Mn, 1.09 Si

Type 310 S (S31000) 20 — 25 — — — — — — — 2.0 Mn, 1.5 Mn

Type 316 SS (S31600) 12 — 17 2.5 — — — — — — 2.0 Mn, 1.0 Si

Type 446 SS (S44600) — — 25 — — — — — — — 1.5 Mn, 1.0 Si

RA 85 H (S30615) 14.5 — — 18.5 — — 1.0 — 3.5 0.2

HR 120 37 — — 25 — — 0.1 — 0.6 0.05 07 C, 0.2 N

RA 309 (S30908) 13 — — 23 — — — — 0.8 0.05 —

RA 310 (S31008) 20 — — 25 — — — — 0.5 0.05 —

RA 446 (S44600) — — — 25 — — — — 0.5 0.05 07 Mn, 0.1 N

253 MA (S30815) 11 — — 21 — — — — 1.7 0.08 0.04 Ce, 17N

314 (S31400) 20 — — 25 — — — — 2.2 0.1 —

Alloy 800 (N08800) 31.8 Bal — 21.4 — — 0.35 — 0.35 0.04 0.79 Mn, 0.44 Ti

Alloy 520 35.0 Bal — 21.0 — — NA — 2.0 — 1 Cb

Alloy DS 34.3 Bal — 18.0 — — <0.1 — 2.20 0.03 1.3 Mn, <0.05 Ti

253 11 Bal — 21 — — — — 1.7 — N, Ce

DS 36 Bal — 18 — — — — 2.2 0.06 —

45 TM Bal 23 — 27 — — — — 2.7 0.08 —

602 CA Bal 9.5 — 25 — — 2.1 — — 0.18 Y, Zr, Ti

X Bal 18 — 22 — — — — — 0.10 9 Mo, W, Co

625 Bal 3 — 22 — — — — — 0.10 9 Mo, 3.5 Cb

617 Bal 1.5 — 22 — — 1.2 — — 0.06 9 Mo, 12 Co

SS, stainless steel.

aCabot, Hastelloy, Haynes, and Multimel are registered trademarks of Cabot Corporation; Waspaloy is a trademark of United Technologies. RA is a registered trademark of Rolled Alloys. Inconel is a registered trademark of the INCO family of companies.

bMaximum.

Source: From D.E. Fluck, R.B. Herchenroeder, G.Y. Lai, and M.F. Rothman, Met. Prog. 128(4):35–40, 1985;

J. Kelly, Heat Treating, July 1993, 24–27.

The mechanistic cleaning process of alkaline and neutral cleaners is illustrated in Figure 1.142.

The aqueous surfactant solution penetrates the oil film on the metal surface and solubilizes it by a micellation process. The micellized oil is then removed to the bulk of the aqueous cleaning fluid.

The detergent cleaning action is affected by time, temperature, concentration, contamination,

The detergent cleaning action is affected by time, temperature, concentration, contamination,

In document Steel Heat Treatment: Equipment and Process Design (Page 136-200)