Parental involvement

Students’ academic achievement does not depend on the quality of the teachers and the school environment only but is also influenced by the involvement of parents. The role of parents in influencing the academic results of their children is vital (Rabiu et al., 2016). Parents’ involvement in children’s learning processes, together with economic and environmental factors, influence their development in areas like language, social skills and cognition. Previous research findings indicate that parental participation during the course of a child’s education can improve his / her academic performance (Fan & Chen, 2001), (Driessen, Smit, & Sleegers, 2005), (Hong & Ho, 2005). Children are likely to have improved behaviour and attain higher academic performance levels when their parents are actively involved in their learning processes (Bryan, 2005).

According to Annunziata, Houge, Faw, and Liddle, (2006), academic failure has been directly linked to risky behaviour and other negative consequences like behavioural and emotional problems including delinquency and substance abuse (Rafiq, Fatima, Sohail, Saleem, & Khan, 2013). It is important to note that many studies in the area of parental involvement were conducted

mainly on elementary school pupils (Bailey, Silvern, Brabham, & Ross, 2004); (Marjoribanks, 2005). However, currently, there are limited and inconsistent facts regarding nature and extent to which the involvement of parents affects the educational results of students in secondary schools (Jeynes, 2007). The involvement of parents in the education of their children’s has now become a fundamental issue in studies and policies related to education. Most of the research findings on secondary school education so far indicate a positive relationship between educational success and parental involvement, (Wilder, 2014).

Parents play a key role when it comes to the education of a child both at home and at school (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). Various studies carried out in sociology by researchers in education have shown that when parents get involved in their children’s studies, their academic performance is enhanced (Dresselhaus & Shrode, 2012). This has been realised mostly with children who enrol in programmes that are more challenging, which require better behaviour, more persistence in academic work, better social skills, and improved attendance; reduced school drop-out rates were observed when parents closely monitored their children (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Parental involvement can further mitigate the high level of students’ failure in public examinations thereby reducing wastage of parents’ own resources and public expenditures used in supporting formal education in schools. Parental participation in the children’s educational activities may save public and personal spending and the quality of education would also improve both at the national and individual level (Nasser, 2014).

If parents were conscious of the influence of their participation in school activities on their children’s future and learning ability, they would more actively participate in their children’s education. Educators, with the assistance of parents, should be advised to promote those practices likely to improve full participation of parents in children’s learning processes. Schools need to take advantage of what is already being done by parents and empower them to interact with and assist their children at home; they should emphasise on learning activities that strengthen what the teachers will be teaching at the school. Schools need to aim at increasing parents’ level of appreciation of the school programme and the skills that their children need to promote at each of the stages of a learning process. Parents should be notified of the schools’ tracking systems on students as they use the smartphones; this will enable parents to make decisions in the best interests of their children (Brewster & Railsback, 2003).

results become supreme. In these instances, better chances of attaining knowledge and for relating the knowledge gained at school to real-world events are provided to the children (Rafiq et al., 2013). Using smartphones to access the Internet will expose students to various platforms over which many of these students have no control. The involvement of parents becomes paramount, especially when students interact with persons, other than their teachers and parents, who can reinforce different ideologies of learning. Such may contradict the values and traits of their society (Epstein, 1995).

Communication between teachers and parents is one strong component of effective parental involvement (Rabiu et al., 2016). In many cases, parents prefer to engage in informal relationships with teachers who teach their children. The personal contact of parents with their children’s teachers is the one outstanding factor for enhancing their academic results. According to Epstein (1995), the family, community and the school, are crucial environments that can influence the children’s development. The development of children’s education is improved when the three environments operate in collaboration towards a common goal (Rafiq et al., 2013).

Parental involvement tends to differ from society to society, and from culture to culture (Rafiq et al., 2013). However, it should be noted that the expectations of parents have a greater impact on students’ educational results. Parental involvement can take different forms, which may have a differing influence on the children’s academic performance. Some scholars have categorised involvement of parents into four components, namely; participation of parents in children’s school events, participation of parents in children’s learning activities at home, direct participation of parents in the children’s learning activities and indirect participation of parents in the children’s learning activities (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003).

2.3.2.2.1 Involvement of parents in children’s school activities

Parents are important partners in the teaching and learning processes of children (Annunziata, Hogue, Faw, & Liddle, 2006). Their role involves working in partnership with teachers and their support in school events. Parental involvement is critical in learning activities done at school. This may involve communicating with the teachers, confirming if the child has attended school, monitoring their activities at school, and inspecting progress reports (Rafiq et al., 2013). Parental involvement in school-based activities promotes the development of community partnerships, the school, and family. These partnerships can provide family services and support, improve school programmes and school climate, and increase parental skills in assisting their children, and in

leadership. This will also connect families with others in the community and in the school. The purpose of forming these synergies is to support students so that they may be successful in school and in their future (Epstein, 1995).

2.3.2.2.2 Involvement of parents in children’s learning activities at home

The learning process begins at home as the child interacts with his / her family. It is true that the levels of involvement of parents may vary from one parent to the other (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). For example, the involvement level of a mother of young children may differ from that of the mother of secondary-school children. The father’s involvement level with children’s learning activities differs from that of the mother in a family set-up. Educated or uneducated parents’ levels of involvement with their children’s education also differ. The family’s economic status, family background, and social environment also dictate the level of the parents’ involvement.

Participation of parents with their children from early stages of their development equates to improved results; especially in developing their personalities (Rafiq et al., 2013). Children try to emulate their parents because they are their primary guides, considering them always to be right, therefore, parents can greatly mould their lives. Parental involvement can have a positive bearing on children’s success, even after background aspects like family size and social class have been considered (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). In this research, parents play an important role, which is to monitor their children as they use their smartphones for their learning process.

2.3.2.2.3 Direct involvement of parents in academic activities of children

Parents are the initial teachers of any child (Rafiq et al., 2013). Parental involvement includes activities like; monitoring children’s outdoor and indoor activities, helping them in reading, helping children with homework, or also encourage them to work independently when doing their homework (Wilder, 2014).

2.3.2.2.4 Indirect involvement of parents in academic activities of children

Parents can assist their children indirectly by outsourcing coaching services from specialised personnel in improving their learning in different learning areas. Some of the students lack the required skills to efficiently utilise smartphones. It is the responsibility of the parents to assist their children possibly by assigning them the relevant tutors (Lee, 2010). In Zimbabwe, students are now required to carry out tasks and projects in the new educational curriculum that require them to do field research or surveys, interviewing people from different cultural backgrounds. Parents should be concerned about the evolving learning opportunities being provided by

secondary schools; hence the need for their involvement at every level of their children’s learning process. As children graduate from the primary to secondary school grades, parents should become more and more worried about the further education of these teenagers’ and about how the programmes of secondary education may affect the prospects of post-secondary education (Catsambis & Garland, 1997). The learning opportunities, however, come with financial demands which must be fulfilled by the parents. The need for parents to purchase the appropriate smartphones for use by their children in school cannot be overemphasised.