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Chapter 2 Literature review 2.1 Introduction

2.2 Importance of researching tourism impact

2.2.4 Past findings pertaining to Chinese tourism impacts

The above reviews are derived from studies conducted in western nations. In this section, tourism impact will be discussed in the context of Chinese society. In China, with the rapid development of tourism industry, the research into tourism impacts dates back to the early 1980s. For example, Zhong et, al., (2011) undertook a search of the Chinese core journals using the term “tourism environment”. It was found that during the 20 year period from 1981 to 2000, a total of 155 papers had been published with an average of 7.8 papers per year.

However, during 2001 to 2009, there were 380 papers published, with an average of 42.2 papers per year. For instance, as early as in the 1981, Chen defined the tourism environment as “a kind of environment in which people can engage in tourism activities, experience beauty, gain spatial, physical enjoyment and knowledge and have fun. It involves natural, social, economic and political environments as well as scientific and technological conditions.” (p.1) Yu et al., (1999) conducted study in Changbai Mountain National Natural Reserve, and found that the discharge of sewage had polluted the watershed of the Erdaobai River, and the atmosphere in this nature reserve had also been polluted due to the use of coal and diesel for heating and cooking. Jiang et al., (1996) examined tourism impacts on vegetation in Emei Mountain of Sichuan Province and revealed that the fir mortality rate in the highly used areas by visitors was several times higher than in other regions. In the current decade, Quan (2003) discovered the serious environment problems in Wulingyuan Scenic Area, a World Heritage Site in Hunan Province, due to its uncontrolled tourism development.

Similarly, based on the investigation of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park in China, researchers found that the park’s environment, air quality and ground water quality had deteriorated with the four different tourism development stages (e.g., exploration, involvement, development, and consolidation stages) (Zhong, Deng & Xiang, 2008). It seems that the environment impacts are most likely to be reported negatively in most cases; yet, Chinese researchers also argued that tourism could bring positive environmental effects. Li, et al., (2006) argued that there were positive environmental impacts at Jiuzhaigou that included an increased environmental awareness resident that encouraged them to fully participate in the tourism environment protecting.

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With reference to social-cultural impacts, from the late 1980s, the socio-cultural impacts of tourism were widely researched in China; and the majority of studies focussed on investigating the effects of tourism on the quality and standards of living, lifestyle, cultural change, and social structure (Liu, 2003, Zhou & Wu, 2004). For instance, in a study of tourism impact conducted in Shenzhen, it was found that the tourism brought some negative social and cultural impacts to Shenzhen communities, like increasing the conflict between local residents and outsiders, adding to the number of beggars, increasing reported crime and even encouraging the sex industry in Shenzhen (Li, 2002). Gu and Ryan (2010) investigated the tourism impact on a rural community, Hongcun, and found that tourism brought local residents a perceived better quality of life, while the handicrafts being produced by the village had significantly increased. Yet at the same time the residents also felt that the tourism created crowding, noise, poor water quality, and more rubbish. In another study, Cui and Ryan (2011) found that in Ankang, China, both rural and urban residents had positive attitude toward tourism impacts, believing tourism could bring job opportunities, and improve their life standards. In addition, Wang, Li and Bai (2005) undertook a study of residents’ perception of tourism impact in Harbin, and noted that tourism made Harbin a more exciting place, and enriched its traditional local culture. Gu and Ryan (2008) examined the relationship between local community and tourism impacts in a Beijing hutong, and indicated that ‘traffic congestion’ and ‘visitors are far too intrusive in everyday lives’ were the main negative social impacts as perceived by residents.

In many cases economic benefits are often cited as the main reason for attracting all levels of government to invest in tourism development. In some developing countries, such as China, the government is using tourism as an important strategy to increase local revenue. However, the present model of tourism development in many rural areas of China faces problems because while focusing on economic growth, it is overlooking the actual distribution of economic benefits and socio-ecological costs resulting from that growth (Wang, 2003). Feng (2008) investigated tourism impact in Fenghuang County and found that tourism created both positive and negative economic impacts for the local community. For example, while tourism development increased local revenue, it failed to cover the increased expenditure. However, there was an imbalance between those experiencing the increased revenues and costs, and while some benefitted, there was an increased income disparity. Equally, while tourism could increase employment opportunities for locals, the higher paying jobs were usually given to outsiders. Li et al., (2006) investigated tourism impact in Jiuzhaigou Biosphere Reserve.

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They found the GDP derived from the tourism industry increased from 28% in 1990 to 68%

in 2002, while that from agriculture fell from 28% to 11%. Furthermore, Zhong et al., (2008) conducted research in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. They suggested that tourism development in the park promoted economic development for the whole of Zhangjiajie City.

This was based on findings that, for example, in 2002, 59% of the city’s tax revenues were from tourism and related sectors while in the early 1990s this percentage was only about 20%.

On the other hand, the researchers found that 81.9% of respondents reported that the distribution of tourism income was inequitable. The following table summarises some of the Chinese research.

Table 2.5 Chinese research on tourism impacts summary Environmental

Discharge of sewage has polluted the River;

the use of coal and diesel for heating and cooking has polluted atmosphere

Yu et al., (1999) Emei Mountain

(Sichuan Province)

Fir mortality rate in the highly used areas by visitors was several times higher than other regions.

Jiang et al., (1996) Zhangjiajie National

Forest Park

Air quality and ground water quality have deteriorated Jiangxi province Environmental destruction caused by

on-going infrastructure construction projects

Existence of trampling problems and trail widening, the greater frequency of

The glacier on the Yulong Mountain died away, and the number of tourists fell

Yuan et al., (2006).

Shandong Province A decreased local wildlife as tourism development begin to change the landscape

Wang, et al., 2010 Li Jiang ancient

town

The water quality in Lijiang deteriorated sharply, due to the fast growing tourism

Ning & He, 2007.

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Table 2.6 Some Chinese research on tourism impacts summary

Social-cultural impact

Study areas Findings Researchers

Shenzhen Increasing conflict between local residents and outsiders, adding the number of beggars, raising the crime or even encouraging the sex industry

Li, 2002

Ankang Tourism could bring job opportunities, and improve their living standards

Ryan & Cui, 2010

Haierbin Tourism made Harbin become a more exciting place, and enriched its traditional local culture

Wang et al., (2005) Beijing hutong ‘Traffic congestion’ and ‘visitors are far too intrusive in

everyday lives’ were the main negative impacts

Gu & Ryan (2008) Yunnan province Tourism enhance the empowerment of women; improve

of quality of life; Revitalization of ethnic culture;

tourism create prostitution issue; disruption of

Tourism help to preserve the heritage of the diaolou, meeting visitors from outside seen as social benefit

Ryan et al., 2011 Fenghuang

County , Hunan

The conflicts among the local residents, local

government, and the tourists are becoming fierce; the role of local women is also changing; the rate of crime increase

Feng, 2008

Zhangjiajie National Forest Park

Growth in total population, people migrate from other parts to park; quality of life was positively affected by tourism; local residents’ friendliness towards tourist has gradually faced over time

Zhong et al., 2008

Lijiang Old Town The usage of historic buildings has drastically changed;

the location of the residences of the indigenous minority and its culture are rapidly changing as tourism develops

Yamamura et al., 2006 Jiuzhaigou Scenic Tibetans residing in the Jiuzhaigou Scenic area have

been largely influenced by tourists of Han nationality, including the food, oral language, dressing, and housing style

Liu & Zhu, 2006

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Given the vital role of religious tourism, one should not be surprised that religious tourism can have impacts similar to those of mass tourism, such as job creation, population growth and infrastructure improvement, but it may also have its own unique features (Vijayanand, Table 2.7 Some Chinese research on tourism impacts summary

Economic opportunity for locals, but higher payment job for outsiders

Feng (2008)

Jiuzhaigou Biosphere Reserve

Cause great changes for the economic structure and employment structure Zhangjiajie City, increase tax revenues; but 81.9%

of respondents reported the distribution of tourism income is unfair.

benefits of tourism get distributed widely though village; no significant negative economic impacts mentioned by villages

Ryan et al., (2011)

Shenzhen Attracting foreign capital investment, creating job opportunities, improving living standards and

Tourism increase family income, most of the increment results from two sources: ticked-based income distribution and tourist commercialisation

Zhang, Ding and Bao, 2008 Zhouzhuang Provide substantial job opportunities in

Zhouzhuang, all the low pay jobs are filled by outsiders rather than the locals, economic leakage is high.

the price of commodities increases sharply, the cost of living increases.

Gu & Wong , 2006

Shandong Revenue generated in the local economy, jobs generated in the community, variety of shopping facilities, attract investment

Wang, Bickle &

Harrill, 2009