In t h i s s e c tio n I t w i l l be argued th a t th e concept o f m otion, when used to d e fin e man, had f o r Hobbes a s tro n g “ p o l i t i c a l ” appeal ( s p e lt o u t in unambiguous term s In C hapter XI o f E lem ents o f P hilosophy), In th e sense th a t. In Hobbes's view . I t had a l l th e re q u ire d c h a r a c t e r ls t les to make I t th e a p p ro p ria te s t a r t in g p o in t o f h is p o l i t i c a l th e o ry .
11.2.1 C om parative a n a ly s is
p o l i t i c a l l y a p p e a lin g th e d e f in it io n o f man as m o tio n, I t may be p r o f i t a b ly re c a lle d th a t In h is vie w "man" Is a " u n iv e r s a l name", which, as such has no d ir e c t c o u n te rp a rt In th e w o rld (10), b u t
r e fe r s t o an a b s tra c tio n , o r m e n ta l Image.
Since "one u n iv e rs a l name Is Imposed on many th in g s , f o r t h e ir s im ilit u d e In some q u a lit y , o r o th e r a c c id e n t" (11) and "a man denotes any one o f a m u ltitu d e o f men ... by reason o f t h e ir
s im i lit u d e ’* (12), I t fo llo w s th a t In Hobbes's vie w In o rd e r to d e fin e man we have to compare a l l In d iv id u a ls a t th e same tim e : w h atever can be fo u n d In "e v e ry p a r t ic u la r o f m ankind" (13), th a t Is man.
Whereas I t Is beyond doubt th a t what can be term ed a co m p arative a n a ly s is o f In d iv id u a ls was co n s id e re d by Hobbes as a necessary e x e rc is e to fo r m u la te th e d e f in it io n o f man. I t Is more d i f f i c u l t to e s ta b lis h w he th e r In h is o p in io n such an e x e rc is e w ould be a ls o s u f f ic ie n t .
Indeed, one c o u ld r e f e r to a w e a lth o f passages In Hobbes's works (e s p e c ia lly In h is a n a ly s is o f u n iv e rs a l and compound names, and In h is e x p la n a tio n o f th e c o m p o s itiv e n a tu re o f o u r m ental processes) where Hobbes conveys th e s tro n g im pression t h a t th e above-m entioned com parison a cro ss men a t a g iv e n p o in t In tim e is a l l t h a t Is needed to a r r iv e a t th e d e f in it io n o f man.
However, th e vie w th a t a co m p arative c r it e r io n be s u f f i c i e n t to d e fin e man Is re p u d ia te d a lto g e th e r by Hobbes h im s e lf In what I
(10) "th e re being n o th in g In th e w o rld u n iv e rs a l b u t names", L e viath an , p. 21; "T here Is n o th in g u n iv e rs a l b u t names". E lem ents o f Law, p. 20.
(11) Leviath an , p. 21; emphasis added.
(12) E lem ents o f Law, p. 18; em phasis added. (13) I b id , p. 19.
b e lie v e to be a c o rn e r-s to n e o f h is r e f le c tio n s on th e d e f in it io n o f man — I r e f e r to s e c tio n 7 o f C hapter XI o f E lem ents o f Philosophy. Here Hobbes s p e c ifie s an a d d itio n a l c r it e r io n th a t s h o u ld be deployed to c a p tu re th e I d e n t it y o f man. By fo c u s in g a tt e n tio n on t h is c r i t e r i o n In th e n e x t tw o s e c tio n s I s h a ll be a b le to p ro v id e a p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n as to why Hobbes d e fin e d man as m otion, o r, more p re c is e ly , why he b e lie v e d t h a t such a d e f in it io n p ro v id e d th e a p p ro p ria te s t a r t in g p o in t f o r h is p o l i t ic a l th e o ry .
I I . 2 .1 T lm e -s e rle s a n a ly s is
We may begin by n o tic in g th a t In E lem ents o f P h ilo s o p h y Hobbes r e je c ts unam biguously th e I d e n t if ic a t io n o f man w ith body, o r u n ity o f m a tte r; he observes t h a t a man's body changes o v e r tim e and so. I f we w ere to I d e n t if y Man and Body, we would be bound to conclude th a t young and o ld S ocrate s a re n o t th e same man. He w r ite s :
For I t Is one th in g to ask concerning S ocrates, w h e th e r he be th e same man, and a n o th e r to ask w he th e r he be th e same body; f o r h is body, when he Is o ld , cannot be the same I t was when he was an In fa n t, by reason o f th e d iffe r e n c e o f m agnitude: f o r one body has alw ays one and th e same m agnitude; y e t, n e v e rth e le s s , he may be th e same man (14)
Hobbes r e je c ts In e q u a lly s tro n g term s the I d e n t if ic a t io n o f man w ith "a g g re g a te o f a c c id e n ts ", fo r , he argues. I f we were to accept I t , we w ould be bound to say " t h a t a man s ta n d in g Is n o t th e same he was
(14) E lem ents o f Philosophy^ p. 137. (15) Ib id .
s i t t i n g ” (15).
The consequence o f I d e n t if y in g Man w ith e it h e r body o r a g g re g a te o f a c c id e n ts , and th e r e fo r e o f being unable to c a p tu re th e c o n tin u ity between young and o ld S ocrate s would, In Hobbes's view, be d is a s tr o u s
In so f a r as I t w ould lead to a com plete c o n fu s io n o f a l l c i v i l r ig h t s :
w. he t h a t s in s , and he t h a t Is punished, s h o u ld n o t be th e same man, by reason o f th e p e rp e tu a l f lu x and change o f man's body - w hich were to confound a l l c i v i l r ig h ts . (16)
From th e above q u o ta tio n s I t can be seen q u ite c le a r ly th a t accordin g to Hobbes a co m p a ra tiv e a n a ly s is Is n o t s u f f i c i e n t to a r r iv e a t a d e f in it io n o f man t h a t w ould enable him to fo u n d (and n o t to confo un d ) c i v i l r ig h t s . A n o th e r n ecessary c o n d itio n f o r th a t d e f in it io n Is th a t I t m ust c a p tu re th e s e lf-s a m e n e s s o f persons over tim e . Hence a c o m p a ra tiv e c r it e r io n has to be combined w ith what can be c a lle d a tlm e - s e r le s com parison t h a t p in p o in ts what Is permanent
In th e same In d iv id u a l a t d if f e r e n t tim e s. I f a d e f in it io n o f man as e it h e r body In p e rp e tu a l change o r as d e v e lo p in g s e l f can s u it w e ll th e needs o f n a tu r a l s c ie n t is t s and p s y c h o lo g is ts . I t Is a lto g e th e r Inadequate, a t le a s t In Hobbes's view , f o r a p o l i t i c a l t h e o r is t (17).
(16) E lem ents o f P hilosophy, p. 136, emphasis added.
(17) I t w i l l be n o tic e d t h a t the co m p arative c r it e r io n and a tlm e - s e rle s c r it e r io n a re b u t an a p p lic a tio n to th e s p e c ific case o f th e d e f in it io n o f man o f th e tw o ty p e s o f com parisons examined In C hapter XI o f E lem ents o f P h ilo s o p h y ( e n t it le d “ O f Id e n t it y and D iffe re n c e ” ) where Hobbes d if f e r e n t ia t e s between :
- the com parison o f many o b je c ts a t th e same tim e so to d is c o v e r e q u a lit ie s and d iffe re n c e s (p a rs 1 -6 );
- th e com parison o f th e same body w ith I t s e l f a t d if f e r e n t tim e s (p a r 7) so to f in d I t s I d e n t it y (I.e. what Is permanent In I t ) .
11.2.3 The I d e n t it y o f man
Having th u s a s c e rta in e d th e compound c r it e r io n necessary and s u f f i c i e n t to a r r iv e a t a p o l i t i c a l l y re le v a n t d e f in it io n o f man, we can I n te r p r e t th e e a r ly c h a p te rs o f E lem ents o f Law and L e v ia th a n as an a tte m p t to answer th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n ; what Is common to a l l men and c o n s ta n t In each o f them o v e r tim e?
Hobbes leads th e re a d e r to r e a liz e th a t people a re d if f e r e n t fro m one a n o th e r n o t o n ly In t h e i r appearences, ta s te s , and p h y s ic a l c h a r a c te r ls t les b u t a ls o In t h e ir d e s ire s , a v e rs io n s , th o u g h ts , judgm ents, and va lu es. In E le m e nts o f Law he n o tic e s :
w h ile e v e ry man d l f f e r e t h fro m o th e r In c o n s titu tio n , th e y d i f f e r a ls o one fro m a n o th e r c o n c e rn in g th e common d is t in c t i o n o f good and e v il. (18)
In De Cive he s tre s s e s th e d i f f e r e n t d e s ire s and a v e rs io n s o f people and co n s e q u e n tly t h e ir d i f f e r e n t va lu e s ;
„. such Is th e n a tu re o f man, t h a t e v e ry one c a lls t h a t Good which he d e s ire s , and e v llL w hich he eschewes; and th e r e fo r e th ro u g h th e d iv e r s it y o f o u r a ffe c tio n s , I t happens th a t one co un ts th a t good^ which a n o th e r co u n ts e v il I (19)
». what t h i s man commends, ( th a t Is to say, c a lls Good) th e o th e r u ndervalues, as being E v il (20)
... th e same A c tio n Is p r a is 'd by these, and c a ll'd V e rtu e , and d is p ra is e d by those, and term ed v ic e (21)
(18) E lem ents o f Law, p. 29. (19) De Cive, p. 177.
(20) I b id , p. 74. (21) I b id , p. 75.
In L e v ia th a n Hobbes combines th e n o ta tio n t h a t people a re d if f e r e n t