The methodologies developed in this thesis provide useful tools to investigate the effects of environmental and management factors on the behaviour of a range of livestock species, including grazing dairy cows. Knowledge of how animal behaviour is influenced by management decisions and the environment is important in considering current systems of management and also in evaluating new management routines, with the aim of improving productivity and farm profitability. Thus, future research could utilise this methodology to evaluate both current and new management systems.
126 The results of this study clearly demonstrate that for grazing dairy cows the majority of urine is deposited on pasture. Findings indicate that urine patches tend to be more aggregated during times of rest rather than during grazing, specifically between sunset and morning milking. Areas where there is an aggregation of urine patches will have higher rates of N leaching than the average for the paddock because a) N concentration increases when urine patches overlap and b) fertilisers are commonly spread uniformly across a paddock contributing to N loads in areas that already have levels of N in excess of what plants can use in a year. These can have a negative environmental impact because N in excess to plant requirements is nitrified to nitrate, which is easily leached in the following drainage season to ground and surface waters.
This study shows that if dairy cows are kept off pasture on a standoff area between sunset and morning milking, 29% of total urine patches can be removed from pasture. If cows are also to be kept away from pasture between 10:00 and afternoon milking (another period of rest) a further 21% of total urine parches can be removed without markedly impacting pasture intake. It is important to point out however, that the morning rest period is less defined and the effects of restricted grazing, in the morning, needs further investigation in order to ensure that the welfare and productivity of cows is not compromised. If there are to be two standoff periods, dairy cows will be able to graze for four hours in the morning and five hours in the afternoon. However, times of sunrise and sunset will change with seasons and these, together with lactation stage, are likely to have an effect on the behaviour of cows and on the time spent off pasture. Further studies need to examine how the change in seasons affects grazing and resting behaviour and adjust standoff time accordingly so grass intake is not compromised. By having two standoff periods 60% of total urine deposits (including 10% already deposited in holding yard and milking shed) can be captured and applied across paddocks in a more uniform manner as needed.
Although the effects of standoff time on the rate of N leaching was not investigated here, additional studies could determine the actual reduction of N losses to the environment when dairy cows are kept away from pasture for particular periods of the day. While there may be several options available to farmers to reduce N losses to the environment, the
127 mechanisms by which time away from pasture affects some aspects of changes to cow behaviour, welfare and productivity are unclear. Therefore, while simple recommendations can be provided on ways to reduce the amount of N leached into the environment, further work is required to determine the important factors by which time off pasture impacts on cow behaviour, welfare and productivity. Thus definitive recommendations cannot be made until such work has been completed.
Further studies are needed to contribute to building a clearer picture of the association between behaviour density and density of urine patches over longer time periods (e.g. repeat observations at later grazings of the same paddocks), and validating the effects that were explored in this study Such studies will take into account the effects of factors such as season and stage of lactation on behaviour and possible subsequent effects on urine patch density.
Utilising the methods developed within this thesis, more research can be completed on flat, rolling and steep commercial dairy farms, under different stocking densities, pastoral availability and management scenarios before firm conclusions can be drawn, so that a clearer understanding of nutrient distribution by the grazing dairy cow can be determined. Such understanding will allow farmers and fertiliser consultants to better match nutrient needs and placement of fertiliser at the within-paddock scale to optimise returns from money invested in their enterprises.
128
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