1 # coding: utf−8 2 #
3 # Program for shifting the time delay of a Tektronix AFG3252 upon receiving 4 # the line clock string 'C' from a serial bus.
5 #
6 # Package dependencies: pyvisa , pyserial 7 #
8 # Usage: run trkpfm_v02_clean.py 4 500e−9 50 10 10e−9 64 9 #
10 # For AFG programming commands , see:
11 # mmrc.caltech.edu/Tektronix/AFG3021B/AFG3021B%Programmer%20Manual.pdf)
20 from datetime import datetime 21
22 # Usage note:
23 if len(sys.argv) != 7:
24 print ('Usage: %s [number_of_lines] [time_period] [pump_duty_cycle]
25 [probe_duty_cycle] [probe_pulse_delay] [number of frames]' 26 '\n [number_of_lines] should match your total scan line number' 27 '\n [time_period] in s, e.g. 500e−9 for 500 ns'
28 '\n [pump_duty_cycle] in percent , e.g. 50 for 50 %%' 29 '\n [probe_duty_cycle] in percent , e.g. 15 for 15 %%'
30 '\n [probe_pulse_delay] in s, positive , and smaller than time_period' 31 '\n [number of frames] desired number of captured frames'
32 '\n For covering a complete time period in a single frame,' 33 '\n set [number of lines] to 1 and [number of frames] to' 34 '\n the number of total lines.'
35 '\n e.g.: run trkpfm_v02.py 4 500e−9 50 10 10e−9 64' % sys.argv[0]) 36 sys.exit(1)
37
38 # Input parameters:
39 skip = int(sys.argv[1]) # any integer , should match scan dimensions
A.6. Python Code for Shifting the Time Delay
40 l = int(sys.argv[6]) # any integer , should match number of frames 41 tp = sys.argv[2] # in s, e.g.: '500e−9' s
42 pump_dc = sys.argv[3] # in %, e.g.: '50' % 43 probe_dc = sys.argv[4] # in %, e.g.: '10.25' %
44 probe_del = sys.argv[5] # in s, e.g.: '200e−9' s | 0 <= probe_del <= tp !!
45
46 # Compute per line delay (delay to be added per line change):
47 time_period = float(tp) # convert tp string to float
48 start_del = float(probe_del) # convert probe_del string to float 49 add_del = time_period / l # time period divided by total line number 50
51 # Communication with AFG3252 via VISA (USB):
52 rm = visa.ResourceManager() # open VISA resource manager
53 afg = rm.open_resource(u'USB0::1689::837::c021337::0::INSTR') # call AFG 54
55 # Set up AFG Channel 1 (Probe):
56 afg.write('Source1:Function:Shape Pulse') # set pulse shape 57 afg.write('Source1:Pulse:Period ' + tp) # set time period
58 afg.write('Source1:Pulse:Dcycle ' + probe_dc) # set probe duty cycle 59 afg.write('Source1:Pulse:Delay ' + probe_del) # set probe delay time
60 afg.write('Source1:Voltage:Level:Immediate:High 1') # set high level to 1 V 61 afg.write('Source1:Voltage:Level:Immediate:Low −0.1') # set low level to −0.1 V 62 afg.write('Output1:State On') # switch output to on
63
64 # Set up AFG Channel 2 (Pump):
65 afg.write('Source2:Frequency:Concurrent On') # sync frequencies of Ch2 to Ch1 66 afg.write('Source2:Phase:Initiate') # synchronize phase of Ch2 to Ch1
67 afg.write('Source2:Function:Shape Pulse') # set pulse shape
68 afg.write('Source2:Pulse:Dcycle ' + pump_dc) # set pump duty cycle 69
70 # Create initial timestamp and verify AFG input parameters:
71 print(str(datetime.now()))
72 print('frequency [Hz]: ' + afg.query('Source1:Frequency?') + 73 'time period [s]: ' + afg.query('Source1:Pulse:Period?') + 74 'pump function: ' + afg.query('Source2:Function:Shape?') + 75 'probe function: ' + afg.query('Source1:Function:Shape?') + 76 'probe duty cycle [%]: ' + afg.query('Source1:Pulse:Dcycle?') + 77 'probe delay [s]: ' + afg.query('Source1:Pulse:Delay?'))
78
79 # Communicate with Arduino via RS232 (COM3):
80 ardi = serial.Serial(2) # open com−port COM3
81 ardi_stream = ardi.read(1) # record 1 string from Arduino 82
83 # Shift time delay upon receiving 'C' ('C' indicates next line):
84 drop = (0)
85 lines = range(0, skip)
86 frames = range(0, l) # create array of length l for subsequent FOR loop 87 for line in lines:
88 for frame in frames:
89 while True:
90 ardi_stream = ardi.read(1) # catch new string
91 if ardi_stream == 'C': # compare string with line clock string 'C'
92 drop += 1
93 print(drop)
94 if drop == len(lines): # when all lines of an image are acquired:
95 frame_del = start_del + frame * add_del # compute new time delay 96 afg.write('Source1:Pulse:Delay ' + str(frame_del)) # delay pulse 97 actual_del_str = afg.query('Source1:Pulse:Delay?') # check delay 98 print 'frame %d' % (frame)
99 print (actual_del_str)
100 drop = (0)
101 if float(actual_del_str) + add_del >= time_period:
102 start_del −= time_period # facilitate overflow of delay time 103 break # proceed to next line
104
105 # Create final timestamp:
106 else:
107 print(str(datetime.now())) 108 print 'done'
109
110 # End connection to AFG and Arduino:
111 rm.close() 112 ardi.close()
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Acronyms
Acronyms
eeh electron-electron-hole 27 ehh electron-hole-hole 27 acalternating current 116
AFGarbitrary function generator 41, 42, 43, 42, 43, 45
AFMatomic force microscope 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 15, 35, 39, 41, 45, 47, 52, 55, 75, 76, 77, 86, 108, 113, 124, 128
AOM acousto-optic modulator 45, 75, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98 BHJbulk heterojunction vii, 51, 52, 103,
104, 111, 112, 116, 128, 130, 132, 133
C60the Buckminsterfullerene 51, 52, 104, 107, 108, 128
CELIV charge extraction by linearly in-creasing voltage 109
CPDcontact potential difference iii, 10, 12, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 15, 17, 16, 17, 19, 17, 19, 42, 60, 66, 67, 70, 73, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 128, 132
dcdirect current 55, 57
DCV5T-Memethyl-substituted dicyano-quinquethiophene 51, 52, 104, 107, 108, 110, 112, 128
DFTdensity functional theory 20 DOSdensity of states 25
EFMelectrostatic force microscope 3, 4 EQEexternal quantum efficiency 133 F4TCNQ
tetrafluoro-tetracyanoquino-dimethane 48
FETfield-effect transistor 33, 35, 36, 35, 36
FWHMfull width at half maximum 43 HDRhigh-dynamic-range 76
HJ homojunction 49, 73, 75, 77, 78, 85, 100, 106, 107, 111, 115, 130 HMDShexamethyldisilazane 48, 58, 126 ICintegrated circuit 3
ITOindium tin oxide 47, 51, 104 IVcurrent-voltage 35, 53, 54, 57, 59 KPFM Kelvin probe force microscopy
iii, 3, 4, 7, 10, 13, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 39, 51, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 63, 70, 73, 92, 103, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121, 122, 124, 128, 130
LEDlight-emitting diode 20, 45 LIAlock-in amplifier 39, 41 LiNbO3lithium niobate 116
MISmetal-insulator-semiconductor 32 MLmonolayer 48
ncAFMnon-contact atomic force micro-scope 39
ODoptical density 44, 75, 88, 86, 88, 90 OFET organic field-effect transistor iii, 4, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 114, 122, 124, 126
OLEDorganic light-emitting diode 47 OMAoptical multichannel analyzer 8 OMBD organic molecular beam
depos-ition 51, 104
OSCorganic solar cell 4, 47, 51, 103, 106, 112, 116, 128
OTRACE open-circuit corrected transi-ent charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage 109, 110, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116
PCBprinted circuit board 41 PCEpower conversion efficiency 51 PHJ planar heterojunction 51, 103, 128,
130, 132, 133
PIA photoinduced absorption spectro-scopy 108
PLLphase-locked loop 39
pp-KPFM pump-probe-driven Kelvin probe force microscopy iii, 4, 7, 12, 15, 17, 41, 43, 44, 48, 51, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 63, 67, 70, 75, 92, 95, 98, 103, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 122
SAMself-assembling monolayer 48, 114, 124
SCRspace charge region 30, 32, 33, 34, 50, 67, 77, 78, 81, 82, 97, 108, 109, 111, 114, 116, 132
SEMscanning electron microscope 2, 39 SiO2 silicon oxide 48, 47, 55, 57, 58, 124,
126
SMUsource-measurement unit 54, 57 SNRsignal-to-noise ratio 9, 10, 92, 94,
97, 115, 117, 119
SPVsurface photovoltage iii, 35, 49, 52, 73, 75, 77, 78, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 97, 98, 100, 101, 106, 107, 108, 112, 115, 117, 128, 130
SRHShockley-Read-Hall 27, 28, 29, 78, 79, 80, 81, 88, 93, 97, 98, 111 STMscanning tunneling microscope 3,
4
THFtetrahydrofuran 48
TLM transmission line model 7, 25, 35, 36, 35, 54, 62, 63, 65, 70, 114 TTLtransistor-transistor logic 42, 43 UHFultra high frequency 2
UHVultra-high vacuum 49, 51
W2(hpp)4di-tungsten tetra(hpp) 51, 52
B
Acknowledgements
No man is an island, entire of itself;
every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.
John Donne (1572-1631)
Although, occasionally, the long hours spent in the lab could give rise to solitude, the present work would have been impossible without the network of scientists and laymen alike supporting it.
First and foremost, many thanks are due to Prof Lukas M. Eng whose strong be-lieve in scientific visions enabled this work in the first place. He gave valuable sup-port and input whenever he could, often finding unorthodox solutions to imminent challenges.
Dr Björn Lüssem deserves great thanks for his readiness to carefully review this work.
Prof Gerald Gerlach’s firm leadership of the research training group 1401/2, fos-tering a stimulating interdisciplinary network of co-researchers, and his input as second supervisor is deeply appreciated.
Deep gratitude has to be extended to Prof Ifor D.W. Samuel for kindly hosting the last phase of this work.
Funding by Grant No. ZE 891/1-1 and the research training group 1401/2 of the German science foundation is gratefully acknowledged.
Many thanks go to Dr Peter Milde, the eyes and mind of the greater research pro-ject behind this work. He gave invaluable support, provided his innumerable skills to solve countless challenges, shared his vast knowledge and expertise, now and
then acted as mediator, and challenged students tirelessly with his expectations.
He is the example physicist every PhD student needs around in order to become a better physicist.
Dr Moritz P. Hein, Dr Hans Kleemann, and Jens Jankowski are thanked for shar-ing their rich expertise on organic devices and collaboratshar-ing on organic field effect transistors. Dr Donato Spoltore and Sascha Ullbrich deserve kudos for their excep-tional commitment to discuss organic solar cell physics at the most ungodly hours of the day and their help in clarifying the picture of charge carrier transport in said cells. Many thanks also go to Felix Holzmüller and Daniel Schütze for designing, building, and refining the investigated organic solar cell structures. Natalia Ser-geeva has to be pointed out for her ready assistance in impedance spectroscopy.
Any research would be stuck without the undervalued support of great techni-cians such as Ralf Raupach, who works steadfastly on improving and maintaining existing measurement setups and enlightening physics students with his endless lore of electronics. The electronics employed in the present setup emanated from his hands. Gratitude is also deeply expressed to Sven Kunze, who, thankfully, did not mind too much whose research group would benefit from his parts.
Tom Graupner has to be thanked for his help in tackling the challenges of the dual-loop setup. Furthermore, he, Liane Völker, and Alexander Schubert need to be acknowledged for the trust they put in the supervisor of their theses and the lessons learned on the way.
Dr Tobias Mönch, ever enigmatic, provided challenges, interrogations, and dis-tractions, but also invigorating pep talks, intriguing experiments, and shared views on co-workers in room 150d of the Beyer-Bau. Furthermore, he was loyal company during lunchtime. For all that — and many more — he deserves credit.
Then there is Dr Alexander Haußmann, the misunderstood remnant of an era long gone. His strive for clarification and understanding in the most diverse fields of science and society is rare and inspiring, and deserves more acknowledgment.
A big thank you goes to the IAPP choir for their trust in, patience and persever-ance with their choirmasters. The task of conducting an amateur choir may not always be an easy one, but it is most definitely rewarding for everyone.
Every single company survives by the work of a handful of people in the sec-retary who support guests, students, travellers, co-workers, and supervisors alike with their deep insights into the bureaucratic workings of the university. Thank
you, Jitka Barn, Eva Schmidt, Jutta Hunger, Julia Barth, Johanna Katzschner, Carla Schmidt, Dr Angelika Wolf, Dr Annette Polte, and Dr Bärbel Knöfel!
Similarly, no contemporary research facility would run for a single day without the relentless work of the IT department. Kudos to Kai Schmidt and Peter Leumer for single-handedly managing the digital infrastructure of a 100+ person-sized re-search facility!
Deep gratitude has also to be extended to all members of the Institute of Applied Photophysics for their hesitant-free willingness to discuss and help out in any mat-ters as well as their positive, supportive, and collaborative attitude, providing the necessary cohesion to propel research to new heights and, especially, gladly look back to.
Lastly, I am deeply indebted to my parents for their unwavering love and believe in me, my growing family for providing roots for my endeavours, my friends for their unceasing loyalty, and — most importantly — my lovely wife for her endless love, relentless support, and a challenge now and then, as well as our son, whose joy of discovering the wonders of this world would reinvigorate any scientist’s com-mitment to uncover the secrets it holds. Thank you!
C
Erklärung der Selbstständigkeit
Hiermit versichere ich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit ohne unzulässige Hilfe Dritter und ohne Benutzung anderer als der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Die aus fremden Quellen direkt oder indirekt übernommenen Gedanken sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die Arbeit wurde bisher weder im Inland noch im Ausland in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form einer anderen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt.
Diese Dissertation wurde am Institut für Angewandte Physik der Fakultät Ma-thematik und Naturwissenschaften an der Technischen Universität Dresden unter wissenschaftlicher Betreuung von Prof. Dr. Lukas M. Eng angefertigt.
Hiermit versichere ich außerdem, dass weder ein früheres erfolgloses Promoti-onsverfahren stattgefunden hat noch ein weiteres PromotiPromoti-onsverfahren anhängig ist. Ich erkenne die Promotionsordnung der Fakultät Mathematik und Naturwis-senschaften der Technischen Universität Dresden vom 23.02.2011 in der aktuellen Fassung mit den durch den Fakultätsrat beschlossenen Änderungen vom 15.06.2011 und 18.06.2014 an.
Dresden, 7. April 2016 (Jan Murawski)