Every media genre has its own conventions and minority radio everywhere has its own style of programming and content. In some instances, the language used is the only distinctive feature that differentiates minority language radio from any other radio station. Minority radio should also have programmes about the audiences and issues that affect them. Most minority language radio stations are community based. In the case of Zimbabwe, the only minority language radio station that is there is publicly owned. Human rights organisations advocating for minority language rights through United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2014) encourage radio programming that bears all the cultural attributes of a culture, including language. They also recommend the inclusion of content that satisfies the interests of the minority language audiences and minority radio should perform all the normative roles of the media. In most areas where small linguistic communities live, there is underdevelopment and health-related challenges, HIV/AIDS in particular, trafficking, farming education and culture. UNESCO (2014) emphasises the need for programmes that combat drug trafficking, human trafficking and promote self-prevention and community cohesion as strategies to strive and solve these problems. UNESCO (2008) says that programming for minority languages should be in the form of drama, soap opera, talk shows, music and news programmes should include stories about the community. There is supposed to be thorough research and surveillance to gather information for programming as well as feedback from the audiences. A UNESCO (2013)
7 While this study is aware of the connotations behind the use of the term ‘minority’, the word is used in some sections of the
report indicates that many countries in the West and the East as well as some African countries have radio programmes that follow these conventions.
Many countries have radio stations that promote indigenous languages and most of these are community radio stations. UNESCO (2014) and The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (2009) have a guideline on minority language programming. These guidelines are implemented in in Asia, America, Europe and Australia. Most of the programmes advocate for the development of these small communities as most of them are marginalised. For instance, there are programmes on information on birth registration and other programmes that deal with their socioeconomic well-being. Fundamentally indigenous language radio programming is meant to protect these languages from extinction (Rubino, 2010).
There is a link between indigenous language programming and community radio programing. Small linguistic communities are by nature ethnic communities with only a few people who usually share the same language. These people have common interests and goals (Camaroff, 1997). The programming for such kind of radio stations has to be local and limited to that small group of people. There is a rich body of literature that discusses the import of indigenous radio in articulating developmental issues. In Western countries these radio stations mainly broadcast issues to do with health and other social issues especially matters pertaining to the well-being of the community. UNESCO, 2013 and Rubino (2010), when discussing indigenous radio in Czech Republic and Australia respectively, say that indigenous language radio should be anchored on community development and ensuring the survival of minority languages. This is also echoed by Sierp (2010) in an assessment of how indigenous language radio can be used to preserve minority languages in Italy. These scholars agree that programmes in minority languages should be participatory and should discuss issues that affect the audiences.
According to Chapman et al (2003), programmes should include locally recorded actualities to ensure authenticity. They discovered that indigenous language radio can be used in disseminating information in agriculture, including soil and water conservation. They used a Ghana radio station (Simili Radio) as a case study where they established that these radio stations encouraged audience participation due to the use of local languages. This radio station used local drama, local music, and talk shows at local level and locally produced tapes and compact discs. The programmes were scheduled following
farming seasons. For instance, programmes relating to land tillage would be broadcast when farmers are tilling the land. This would also apply to sowing seeds, watering, harvesting and other activities. Since Zimbabwe’s National FM is a public service radio station, it is one of this study’s concerns to examine how the station caters for different small linguistic communities it purports to serve.
In the study by Chapman et al (2003) the use of local languages allowed audiences to participate through asking questions and giving each other advice. This is similar to what the FRI (2011) discovered about how radio can be used to disseminate information on farming techniques. FRI (2011) used Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda and Sierra Leone as case studies. Although the research was mainly about the role of ICTs in enhancing the use of radio, it further went on to find out how the use of indigenous languages promotes sharing of ideas. The research also established that these programmes allowed farmers to participate among themselves and with extension workers through mobile phones and the internet. The listeners formed ALCs where they share ideas on the best farming and marketing practices. In a similar study, Manda (2015) explored how indigenous language can be used to broadcast developmental programmes in Malawi. Like in the FRI (2011) case, the farmers had RLCs. The club members worked together with radio personnel and extension workers. These studies indicate that indigenous language programmes have to involve the audiences themselves through participation in the formulation of programme ideas.
Research on minority radio programming indicates that there is imbalance in terms of the use of language itself and the type of programmes that are broadcast (Myers, 2009). In the Zimbabwean case, for instance, Ndawana and Muromo (2012) established that National FM gives very little airplay to programmes in minority languages. The other predicament on minority language programmes is the issue of airing programme content that does not directly affect listeners of minority languages. In relation to this Sierp (2010), also complains about minority languages being given little air play on radio programmes in Italy. Like in the African case, Myers (2009) and Sierp (2001) blame lack of funding in the radio broadcasting for minority languages. This also leads to commercialisation, where radio broadcasters satisfy the interests of the sponsors and funders.
Audiences are usually interested in consuming information that they relate to and this means indigenous language radio should thrive to disseminate programmes that appeal to the audiences.
Ligaga (2011) analyses how a Kenyan radio station broadcast drama episodes with themes that were social. The radio station avoided presenting political issues for fear of government censorship. However, Odhiambo’s (2011) study shows a different dimension from that of Ligaga (2011). The three talk shows analysed in Odhiambo’s (2011) research included political issues. The study found out that what was discussed in the talk shows affected public opinion.
In many radio stations’ programming, music constitutes 70 percent of the airplay (Scannell, 2001; Myers, 2009). Music by local artists should also be played and the inclusion of local content gives pride to listeners. Commenting on National FM programming, Gondo, (2009) says,
The people in the district proudly talk of the importance of Shangani programmes on radio and see those that have been behind it all, like Thomas Chauke as some kind of heroes. They believe this is a welcome effort to promote the language and its speakers. (Thomas Chauke is a Shangani musician).
According to Scannell (2001), local musicians complained that radio stations in Zimbabwe were mainly playing foreign music instead of local music. In relation to that Mano (2009) later discovered that most music played on Radio Zimbabwe was local. This could be attributed to the fact that the BSA (2001) stipulated that all radio stations should play 75 percent local music. However, Moyo (2004) and Moyo (2009) observed that during election time that local music content would be in the form of ZANU PF jingles and songs that praise the President and the ruling party. It is quite significant for this study to analyse the kind of music that is played on National FM- do they play local music in minority languages? Or they play Shona and Ndebele songs?
Programmes should be written in minority languages and translation should be discouraged (UNESCO, 2013). This involves the inclusion of minority language speakers in radio programming as in the case of Shangani, Kalanga and Tonga musicians. The presenters on National FM should also be speakers of these languages. Chapman, Blench, Kranj-Berisavljevik and Zakaria (2003) discuss how Radio Savanna, a minority language radio, is used in disseminating information on agriculture in Ghana. The programmes are in the form of drama, music, talk shows and guests who are extension workers also speak these languages. In Zimbabwe, National FM has many developmental programmes for small linguistic communities and this study investigates the processes involved in the production of these programmes.
Scholars agree that audiences are supposed to be active in the production of minority radio programmes (Camaroff, 1997; Chapman, Blench, Kranj-Berisavljevik and Zakaria 2003; McMonagle, 2003). As
discussed earlier, convergence has enhanced audience participation in radio production (Myers, 2009; Mhiripiri, 2011; Moyo, 2012; Chuma, 2013 etc.). Audiences used to write letters to radio in order to participate in different radio programmes. For instance, Mano (2004) discusses how a popular programme on Radio Zimbabwe started audience participation through the use of letters and telephone. The advent of the mobile phone then boosts audiences’ active role in radio production. Audiences could now phone-in and send short messages. However, these were initially a bit expensive and only a few people would participate. Nowadays mobile phones are more affordable and internet accessibility has also increased. Airtime and internet bundles are now affordable. Ultimately, technological convergence brought considerable developments. Audiences can now use Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp and other social media platforms to participate in radio programmes. The issue of internet connectivity in some outlying areas can also inhibit audience participation especially in Africa (Myers, 2009). Smart phones can also be unaffordable for the majority when considering the continent’s economic status (Mano, 2009; Hungbo, 2012; AMB, 2014).
Conclusion
From its invention, radio has always been a medium that has been utilised by many people due to its favourable attributes. However, like all media, radio can also be manipulated by the dominant elites through ownership and control. According to the African Charter on Broadcasting (2001), radio should function in three ways, which are public service, commercial and community. Many scholars have realised that there is state control in all the three systems especially in Africa (Nyamnjoh, 2003; Ndlela, 2007; Myers, 2009; Moyo, 2010). In Zimbabwe, there are no community radio stations, only commercial and PSB radio stations. Available literature has indicated that most African governments use PSB radio stations as their mouth-piece and civic society organisations have been clamouring for governments to free the airwaves. In some African states like Zimbabwe, governments claim to have independent regulatory frameworks but they still control the PSB systems. The literature also shows that radio programming for small linguistic communities should include developmental programmes which help in the upliftment of marginalised communities. Radio programmes that are broadcast in these languages would be valuable to the listeners as they understand the content better than in languages which are not their own. The listeners can also contribute to the programming since they are familiar with the languages.