Research Design

Critical realism is compatible with a wide range of methods and, in this

instance, it was decided that case studies would offer the most useful method to investigate the research questions (Sayer, 2000, p. 19). Practical

implications, relating to available time and money, meant that the research would have to be conducted on a relatively small-scale over two years. The case study approach proved ideally suited to the needs and resources of the small-scale researcher such as myself (Blaxter & Hughes, 2010). I felt that case studies could produce the depth of insight necessary to understand the phenomena under investigation, while at the same time presenting a model of small-scale research which could be repeated in other schools, academy chains or local authorities. Case studies proved particularly useful for developing ideas which ‘illuminates policy and enhances practice’ (Bassey, 1999, p .57). The case study approach also allows for what Yin (2009) calls

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analytical generalisation of the data using an accepted set of principles or theory. In this instance, the theory is provided by Bourdieu and his ideas about cultural capital. In accepting the compensatory principle of Pupil

Premium, there appears to be acknowledgement of the unfairness inherent in the school system towards those with less economic capital. How this is addressed by the schools and their teachers can indicate the extent to which middle-class habitus dominates the discourse and if the policy is as

redistributive as it appears. The case studies consider Bourdieusian theory while providing insight into the teachers’ lived experiences. The value of case studies is often understood by this generalising to theory. Although not as immersive as an ethnography, the case study approach can shine a light into some of the more hidden processes of the reproduction of cultural capital (Warin, 2015).

Observations, planning data and policy documents made up important aspects of the case studies, but to explore teacher perceptions fully, I had to elicit opinions in such depth that could only come through face-to-face interviews. While data could have been garnered from a much larger cohort through questionnaires, I did not believe that enough teachers would have the time or inclination to engage with the research in the required depth. This, along with time and geographical constraints, influenced me to seek out a smaller number of participants to interview and research. It was this level of depth about the teachers’ perceptions and understandings which had been absent from much of the previous research into Pupil Premium. Without being able to engage fully with the lived experiences of the teachers, it would

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have been difficult to understand the effects of Pupil Premium in the

classroom. To discover the context within which each of the teachers was working, national and local documents were analysed, as well as those produced within the schools themselves. I also observed the participants at work in the classroom by way of embedding myself with the participants and to offset the effects of impression management (Goffman, 1970). In addition, this provided evidence in the form of planning documents and class data. I was able to follow up on matters arising through subsequent email

conversations. When these proved insufficient to garner the appropriate response, I used telephone conversations from which I kept notes. This allowed me to double-check and confirm the validity of my initial

interpretations. Such various forms of evidence, based around a small cohort of participants, suggested that the case study approach would be most

effective in this instance. The data were analysed using NVivo software for thematic qualitative analysis. Theoretical assumptions were re-evaluated as the analysis proceeded, revealing insight which explained the phenomena under investigation. The cases were similar enough to be seen as examples of the same phenomenon, yet were distinct enough that comparisons could be made between them (Mack, 2010). I observed the characteristics of the individual teacher in order to analyse intensively the classroom interactions and teacher interpretations, as well as establishing common themes (Cohen et al., 2011).

By triangulating findings from the policy and planning documents, lesson observations and semi-structured interviews for each teacher, the case

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studies developed. This enabled me to dig deeper, into what initially seemed routine, by looking at processes and interpretations in evidence. This rich data provided in-depth insights into participants’ lived experiences within their particular teaching context. Building on the insights revealed by these first- hand practices and experiences contributed to suggestions for improving policy. The aim, rather than formal generalisation, was to present a rich portrayal of a single setting to inform practice, establish the value of the case and to add to knowledge of this specific topic (Simons, 2009, p. 24). The depiction of the classroom setting also established both the value and limitations of current approaches to Pupil Premium. The case studies acted more to refine understanding rather than to transform it (Stake, 2006).

The five case studies of secondary school teachers, including lesson planning and their opinions of Pupil Premium and social justice were undertaken over one academic year. This was to minimise the disruption to the teachers’ working lives, thereby making participation more attractive but also to allow the whole research process to be completed over a two-year period. This timetable had been set with a view to practical and financial implications.