PLATE 1: CHIEF SIMAMBA (HOLDING LONG STICKS) BEING ESCORTED TO A SHRINE DURING LWIINDI CEREMONY
4.6. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/ POTENTIAL WEAKNESSES
Creswell (2005:198) says that every research undoubtedly has its own set of limitations or potential weaknesses or problems that are often identified by the researcher during the course of the study. Stating limitations explicitly is important for other researchers to consider the extent to which results can or cannot be generalized to other people and situations (Ellis and Levy 2009). The following are some of the major limitations that affected this research.
a) Missing documents at HHZ and lack of baseline data
HHZ has been in existence for close to three decades since 1985. No systematic baseline study was conducted at the start of the community
development work. Although some community consultations were held at the start of the project work, those were for the purpose of developing project interventions.
Although a sufficient number of relevant documents were located, I faced a number of challenges finding documents such as baseline documents, project proposals for businesses such as the Lake Kariba Waterways, Warehouse trading, and the Caltex filling station. While some board meeting minutes were available, a number of them were missing. Other documents missing are those for programmes implemented during the earlier part of the work between 1986 and 1990. Presumably documents have been lost at HHZ for lack of a system of storing records.
The available internal HHZ reports were complemented with Simamba documents available at the National Archives of Zambia (NAZ). NAZ documents on Simamba provided important background information before and after
resettlement. I also located documents from the HHUK office in Telford, England.
Other documents were accessed from consultants who had undertaken different types of studies. One challenge of HHZ documents, such as management reports and the newsletters, was that they were mostly biased towards creating a positive picture of HHZ, especially amongst the donors, hence carried one side of the story
i.e. of HHZ, and not the critical views of the beneficiaries. However, I overcame this challenge by accessing both internal HHZ reports and independent evaluation reports. Also with many documents available from different sources, I was able to analyse the work of HHZ better.
b) Information gone with key HHZ employees who quit
At one time HHZ employed up to 60 members of staff with different
expertise ranging from health, education, agriculture and co‐operatives (see details in Chapter Eight). In addition also HHZ employed a number of both expatriate and local volunteers to perform various duties. At the time of this research, in 2015, HHZ had only three technical employees because the rest had left to join other
organizations, especially in the recent years when HHZ’s financial fortunes have continued to spiral downwards. With the majority of employees that have left, it means that HHZ has lost valuable unwritten knowledge and institutional memory.
However, I was able to track down some key senior employees, former board members, and former HHUK employees, which helped me better understand the work of HHZ from different perspectives and individuals.
c) Quality of documents at National Archives of Zambia (NAZ)
The NAZ has voluminous documentation on Simamba chiefdom before and after resettlement, and the period before Zambia’s independence. Although that was the case, documents from NAZ had the following limitations, of for example, not adequately capturing the views and experiences of the rural people in Simamba.
Similar experiences on these challenges are documented in the book by Isaacman and Isaacman (2013:1) entitled ‘Dams, Displacement, and the Delusion of
Development: Cahora Bassa and its legacies in Mozambique.’ They have reported that ‘too often though, the viewpoints of the displaced people are lost or silenced by efforts of the powerful to construct their own meaning in narrow terms of
development or technical success.’ Further, they have reported that archival
sources had the following limitations: (a) reports were influenced by the perceptions of the colonial government; (b) that the realities of the Africans and their lives were missing; and (c) there was generally lack of continued documentation after
Mozambique gained independence. All these challenges reported by Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman also were present in the NAZ documents as well. To address these challenges I relied of documents from different sources, key informants and first‐hand accounts on lived experiences of the first generation resettlers in Simamba chiefdom.
d) Challenge of oral testimonies / histories
Oral testimonies usually capture the changing lived experiences and outlooks from participants’ perspectives through the use of interviews (Batty 2009). Elaine Batty says that the lived experience is tainted by influential effects of culture and other societal influences over time, thus making memory more difficult (Batty 2009).
During this research, I interviewed a number of first generation and second‐
generation resettlers for their detailed views of their lived experiences before and after resettlement (see Chapter Five). Those oral testimonies were complemented by documented evidence. Although the oral testimonies are an important source of information, they tend to have the following limitations on their own as a research tool. Oral testimonies faced the challenges of recall biases, memory inconsistencies especially that this research was conducted several decades after resettlement had occurred Batty (2009 citing Roberts 2002:105). However, while this challenge was present in this research it did not prevent important information to be collected.
Information from people was cross referenced with records from NAZ and other published sources.
4.7. DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES 4.7.1. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS:
Bowen (2009) defines document analysis as a systematic procedure in qualitative research in which printed and electronic materials are examined, and interpreted in order to elicit meaning and develop empirical knowledge. Document analysis was used in combination with other methods as a means of triangulation and to corroborate findings from different sources (Bowen, 2009). My document analysis included reviewing data from the following existing sources such as Colson and Scudder’s long‐term research literature, published and unpublished sources covering demographic, economic and social data. In addition, I also reviewed the Zambia census data, archival records, church records and school records. Of
particular interest to me were HHZ’s documents such as board minutes dating from 1986 to2013, management reports from 2000 to 2013, project proposals, official correspondence, the Harvest Helper Newsletters from 1988 to 2002, staff quarterly reports, strategic plans and project evaluation reports (1994 and 1990, 2000) were accessed from HHZ’s records room.
Relevant background documents on Simamba were photocopied from National Archives of Zambia (NAZ) and verified during focus group discussions.
Secondary data was used to design the household survey tool and provided
background materials for the preparation of interview checklist as well as selecting villages for this research. Both Scudder’s FSF and the Cernea’s IRR frameworks provided an analytical theoretical tools for understanding risks and behaviours along the various stages of the resettlement trajectory in Simamba. During the entire research I was aware that there were potential validity concerns in that HHZ documents or those from the National Archives of Zambia, that often do not wish to present their organizations in bad light. However, this challenge was minimised by accessing documents from different sources.
4.7.2. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Participant observation is a process that enables researchers to learn about the activities, also ideas and values of people under study in a natural setting by observing and participating in those activities (Schensul, Schensul and LeCompte, 1999) thereby providing context for sampling guidelines or interview guides (Kawulich 2005), and more. It is a method for collecting information that has been used in many studies to develop a holistic understanding of the phenomena under study (ibid). Key techniques of participant observations include participation in, for example, farming operations such as harvesting and food processing; and
questioning key informants to understand behaviours or local practices.
For this research, participant observation was applied in collecting data on the inventory of resources such as land, homes, clinics and schools available in Simamba chiefdom by asking unstructured and open‐ended questions, conversing with people as they pursued their daily life during different seasons and times of the year. I observed and participated in different activities, such as school lead activities such as youth day celebrations, football and netball matches between villages; and also between schools and ceremonies such as the Lwiindi (praying for rains). Other popular rituals I observed included delivering the first produce such as mature maize cobs, pumpkins and melons to the village church priest for blessings before the family can start harvesting for home consumption.
This practice was very common and revered amongst the people in Simamba, such that children could be severely reprimanded for consuming farm produce before the harvest ritual. Sunday mornings were when I could see couples and their children in their best clothes going to attend church services, whereas the
afternoons were often reserved for football and netball practice. Saturday
afternoon was for choir rehearsals and cleaning up churches in readiness for Sunday service. I also participated in food processing activities such as pounding and milling millet on stones, to experience how difficult the tasks were.
By participating and observing all those events, I was able to grasp how participants communicate and interact with each other to understand beliefs and values that influence the behaviour patterns and lifestyle in Simamba Chiefdom.
What was particularly striking was the impact of christianity in Nabutezi. For example, I saw a group of four men constructing a food granary at one of their church member’s homesteads without charging their labour as a way of assisting his family because their church member was very ill. Further, I saw church members offering their labour by weeding a cotton field owned by the church to raise money to buy chairs for the church. In addition, I noticed that there was generally a sense of peace, during the time I stayed in‐residence; there were never any family fights, even at beer parties. Key informants attributed their peaceful welfare to their Christian religious beliefs of loving thy neighbour.
Participant observation also allowed this researcher to directly observe events that key informants had shared (such as marriage procedures) or not shared (burial procedures) through interviews (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). This
researcher was able to witness one of the daughters of her host getting married through elopement, and the other procedures that followed under this types of marriage. At the Lwiindi, this researcher together with all other attendees, was not allowed to go to the shrines as the village elders said it was a restricted area. At Manchavwa neighbourhood this researcher was not allowed to photograph the kaanda (rainmaker’s shrine) as they said that would show lack of respect.
Participant observation has the weakness of being costly, because it is time consuming to uncover the hidden meanings of the situation (Law et al 1998).
4.7.3. ETHNOGRAPHIC INTERVIEWS
Law et al (1998) defines interviews as a type of qualitative research that combines immersive observations and directed face‐to‐face interviews to learn from people what they believe and know. I conducted ethnographic interviews at four levels. These were: a) Focus Group Interviews (FGI); b) Key Informant Interviews (KII), c) Face‐to‐Face Interviews (FTF); and d) informal conversational type of
interviews with ordinary people as they were going about their chores. However, Fontana and Frey (1994) note that although conducting interviews is the most common and powerful way of understanding our fellow human beings, asking questions and getting answers is a much harder task than what is seems at first, since there is always a residue of ambiguity. To offset this concern, I prepared an interview checklist and pretested it with a few people to correct any error (See Annex 2 for the checklist). The total number of a range of some of the participants interviewed by type of research methods is provided in Annex 3
a) Focus Group Interviews (FGI).
The focus group interviews are in‐depth group discussions employing relatively homogenous groups of people which provide information around specific issues suggested by the researcher (Kitzinger, 1994; Kreuger 1998:88; Bernard 2002;
Soklaridis 2009).
For this research the FGI were important to help me understand cultural
knowledge that is shared among group members such as first generation resettlers.
It is for this reason that the FGI were well suited for this research. Focus group interviews may be used when the researcher needs in‐depth information about what people think about an issue‐their reasoning about why things are as they are; why they hold views they do (Kitzinger, 1994). The strength of this group methodology is that it allows research participants to develop ideas collectively, bringing forward their own priorities and perspectives. FGI are advantageous in that through group interactions they can produce invaluable data on how people think about an issue‐
their own explanation and understanding; and the tool can be administered to people who cannot read and write. While the main weakness, is that there is a risk of dominating interviews thereby suppressing the voices of the minorities or
individual viewpoints; and there is a possibility of producing complex data to analyse (Laws et al 2003). Generally, FGI involve (7‐10) purposefully selected men and/or women brought together to discuss a topic of mutual interest. The groups may be
homogenous with respect to one or more characteristics of interest to the
researcher such as groups of male or female first generation resettlers interviewed for this research (See Plate 2).
For example, I had a focus group discussion with about six headmen from
resettled villages to learn about their experiences. Through focus groups interviews, I was able to collect information on life/area histories, genealogies, impact of
relocation, and HHZ inputs and outputs. In addition, through FGI, I also collected information on co‐operatives, current economic activities such as fishing, village shops owned by individuals, goat trading, and beer business. Furthermore, other FGI discussed farming practices, land tenure systems, education and health services, location, and access to schools, clinics, and basic food commodities before and after HHZ.
PLATE 2: THE RESEARCHER (IN A BLUE DRESS) CONDUCTING A FOCUS