opined that it is important to establish the validity of findings in a qualitative study. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) suggested that validity in a qualitative study is a subjective phenomenon. This was supported by Saunders et al. (2012) who asserted that there is no conventional way of validating findings of a qualitative research since it deals with human beings and their activities. This is sequel to the fact that no one can guarantee the accurate
112 | P a g e interpretation of the views provided by respondents during the interview/focus group sections. In establishing validating in a qualitative study, four criteria (credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability) have been identified by Lincoln and Guba (1985) to replace the positivist criteria of internal and external validity, reliability and objectivity.
Credibility is the parallel construct to internal validity (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Bryman & Bell, 2015). The purpose is to establish that the research is carried out in a credible way (Riege, 2003). The researcher enhanced the credibility of this study by triangulation of data where he collected data from different sources (Business School managers, academic staff & international students; interviews, focus group, documentations and observation). The researcher also enhanced credibility by peer and colleague review by discussing research and associated methodology with other members of the research community within the University (Bikerstaff et al., 2015).
Transferability parallels the function of external validity (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Bryman & Bell, 2015). The purpose is to establish the extent the findings apply to other contexts (Bryman & Bell, 2015). The researcher enhanced transferability by preparing checklist of topics for interview. The researcher also developed an interview database, where responses from different interviewees were compared. Interviewing respondents from different levels in the Business Schools, and international students from different countries and from different Business Schools establishes transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Dependability parallels the function of reliability (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The purpose is to illustrate that the research process is systematic, rigorous and consistent (Riege, 2003). The researcher enhanced dependability of the study by ensuring that list of topics for interviews and focus group were agreed with the ethics committee of the University of Salford and the participating Business Schools. The researcher also recorded all interviews and focus group sessions using a recorder and conducted pilot studies as part of the research process. The interpretation of the thematic analysis done was verified by the supervisory team.
Conformability parallels the notion of neutrality and objectivity in positivism (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011: Bryman & Bell, 2015). This purpose is to check if the interpretation of data is done in a logical and conformed manner (Riege, 2003). The researcher enhanced conformability by giving the respondent the opportunity to confer in a one-on-one interview section. While conducting the focus group sessions, the researcher also informed the
113 | P a g e respondents about their responsibilities and rights. The researcher also sent introductory email to respondents outlining the aims and objectives of the study. Interpretation of the thematic analysis was also verified by the supervisory team.
4.12.1 Pilot Study
A pilot study provides the researcher with the opportunity to test and modify one or more aspects of a final study (Yin, 2015). Before the data collection process took place, interview questions were piloted. Three pilot studies were conducted with two staff members involved in the application of relationship marketing from two of the selected case, one other expert on the application of relationship marketing. This study also conducted pilot studies with one focus group at one of the selected Business Schools. The aim of the pilot studies was to understand how well the respondents will understand the questions and also establish if there was any contradictory question that probably needs to be rephrased or removed. The respondents involved with the pilot studies did not count in the final samples. The pilot study helped the researcher in deciding on what was relevant and appropriate regarding the topic and then to make necessary adjustments and amendments for the case study protocol. The pilot study also gave the researcher valuable experience in the relevant administrative procedures, contacting the respondents, explaining the purpose of the study and timing each operation (Oppenheim, 2000). Additionally, it helped the researcher to identify key respondents’ ways of thinking about the interview questions. The pilot study allowed the researcher to check the data collection instruments and the methodology to be sure there was no issues (Yin, 2015). After each pilot study interview, interviewees were asked to give their opinion and notes on the general structure of the interview to improve the quality of the study and validity of the research. Responses from interviewees allowed the researcher to prepare himself for the main study by having to change approaches, structure of questions and timing. An example of such was when the researcher had to alternate the convenience sampling method with snowballing for the focus group carried out during the field study.
4.12.2 Time and Location of the Interviews
The interview times were and scheduled at the convenience of the interviewees. This was also applicable to the focus group conducted. Generally, the average time spent on one interview was between forty five minutes and one hour. All the semi-structured face-to-face interviews and focus groups were conducted on site at the selected Business Schools, which also allowed the researcher to observe the interviewees and some facilities they made reference to. For time and location of interviews conducted see Table 4.9. Most of the
114 | P a g e interviews were conducted in the offices of the interviewees, while some others were conducted in conference rooms chosen by the interviewees in their various organisations. It also allowed the researcher the opportunity to access relevant documents and in some cases relevant documents were sent to the researcher via email. There were situations where some interviews were cancelled at the very last minute by the interviewees and rescheduled; the researcher was able to understand this situation are some of the likely hitches associated with face-to-face semi structured interviews and the role of the interviewees which meant they had pressing issues and focus groups. The researcher also had problems accessing the academic staff in one of the selected Business Schools. It was also very difficult to set up the focus groups and this was the main reason for the time taking by the researcher to complete his field study. All interviews were recorded using recorder. The researcher took notes at every interview conducted. The recordings from the interviews were transcribed using a Microsoft word document.
Table 4.9. Showing Time and Location of Interviews
Interviews/Focus Group Location Time Period Participants (Business
School A).
Business School A March 2014 to March 2015
Participants (Business School B).
Business School B March 2014 to March 2015
Participants (Business School C).
Business School C March 2014 to March 2015
Participants (Business School D).
Business School D March 2014 to March 2015
4.12.3 Ethical Consideration
The researcher like every other researcher needs to bring a strong sense of ethics to his research since every study with human requires prior approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Yin, 2014). In consideration to University of Salford rules and regulations, this research falls under the scope of the Research Governance and Ethics Committee (RGEC). Hence the researcher applied for ethical approval (see Ethical Approval Appendix 1) prior to conducting the field study. All participants were given an Information Letter stating the purpose of the research and informing them of every right they possess (see Research purpose
115 | P a g e letter Appendix 4). They were also given Informed Consent forms (see Consent Form Appendix 2) to sign, which state their understanding of their rights as participants. The respondents were informed that they would be completely anonymous in the write-up and as a result their personal responses were guaranteed complete confidentiality. Bryman (2015) posited that interviewing frequently involves the use of audio taping data that is then transcribed. This recorded interview can make the identity of respondents known. Whilst he suggested that this may increase the construct validity of the research it also has ethical implications. In order to protect data provided by respondents, all documentation and audio materials were securely stored within the University of Salford. Electronic materials were stored within the researcher’s file store and written and processed materials were stored in secure filing cabinets. The guarantee of anonymity was particularly important in this research as interviewees were in part critical of some of the practices of their Business Schools and the implications that current responsible practices have both staff and students.