Research styles and methods

Taking these research ‘styles’ (Bell, 1993; Fellows and Liu, 2008), and considering the project objectives and work packages defined in chapter 1.5, four research styles were appropriate for this research project; namely action research, experimental research, surveys and case studies.

3.3.1

A

R

Action research can be used to describe the variety of approaches which are participative in nature, are grounded in experience and are action-oriented (Reason and Bradbury, 2001). Generally, it involves active participation by the researcher in the process under study (Fellows and Liu, 2008) and involves collaboration with another party involved in the research. Problems are first diagnosed and then solutions proposed based on this diagnosis (Bryman and Bell, 2011). It enables the experimentation on ‘real problems’ and is designed to assist in their solution while contributing both to academic theory and practical action (Bryman and Bell, 2011).

Generally, action research follows a cyclical process (research question – diagnosis – plan – intervention – evaluation) which implies some degree of iteration is involved. Specific outputs from work packages (WP) 1-3 were evaluated and used to develop the WP proposed at objective

4. At each iteration, the evaluated findings clarify the aim of objective 4, with the data collected and evaluated at the framework piloting stage through piloting interviews then fed back into the subsequent iteration of the framework. This provides the deliverable for this research project through the creation of knowledge (the development of the framework based upon findings from WP 1-3), the occurrence of an action (use of the framework by pilot companies and feedback obtained from interviews) and the subsequent evaluation of the outcomes of the action (analysis of interview data and use of feedback to improve the framework design) (Bryman and Bell, 2011).

3.3.2

E

Experimental research was used in the addressing of objective 2 and WP 2 by use of quantitative data analysis methods. Experimental research enables the examination of the results of manipulating a single variable in a controlled or observed environment (Fellows and Liu, 2008). In this particular research project, two methods of experimental research were used, (Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha) and the methodology for each of these is included within appendix M.

3.3.3

S

Surveys were used during the addressing of specifically objective 1 and WP 1 (analysis of survey results; questionnaire with some multiple choice questions), and objective 4 and WP 5 (carrying out of interviews as part of the framework pilot process). Interviews also form part of the case study approach (discussed briefly in chapter 3.3.4). Survey analysis is concerned with the identification of causes and correlations that explain data concerned with an individual’s behaviours and thoughts. Questions that are used in the survey research style can be either open-ended or closed (Fellows and Liu, 2008).

3.3.3.1

Interviews

Obtaining data by interviewing is probably the most commonly used qualitative research method (Bryman and Bell, 2011); research into the built environment is no different (Haigh, 2008). There are a variety of different types of interview (Bryman and Bell, 2011), but broadly speaking, these can be categorised as structured, semi-structured and unstructured (Fellows and Liu, 2008). Structured interviews are usually rigid in their design, providing the researcher with a great deal of control over their direction. The researcher adheres to a strict set of questions which does not allow for additional probing. In unstructured interviews the

researcher might typically introduce a topic briefly and record the interviewee’s responses to them (Fellows and Liu, 2008). The interview method selected for use in this project was the semi-structured interview, due to its ability to offer both a degree of control in leading the direction for the interview, but also providing the researcher with the opportunity to conduct additional probing where necessary. Semi-structured interviews were used during both the case study research conducted as part of WP 3 and during the final piloting phase (WP 5).

Prior to conducting the interviews, the researcher should ensure a well-developed interview protocol is in place (Eisenhardt, 1989); as such, the main questions for WP 3 were designed with a series of prompts that would be used if the researcher felt additional information was required based upon the information provided by the interviewee. The interviews conducted were topical, in that they were concerned with the facts or the sequence of an event (Haigh, 2008). The interviews carried out as part of the case study conducted for WP 3 sought to explore the facts around organisational behaviours and learning as sustainability concepts were introduced to each case organisation, and were used to obtain the empirical data in paper 4 (appendix I). Those carried out during the piloting of the learning framework (WP 5) sought to explore how individuals used the framework and how useful it was to their organisation. The results of this pilot phase are discussed in chapter 4.7.

For each set of interviews conducted, a covering letter was designed which was provided to each interviewee prior to commencing the interview. The covering letter set out the purpose of the interview and also covered the ethical rights of the interviewee (i.e. how the data would be used, the rights of the interviewee, etc.; an example of this (which was used as part of the pilot process in WP 5) is included within appendix K). All interview data were transcribed and recorded, and subsequently coded by use of NVivo software. Coding is an important part of content analysis (Bryman and Bell, 2011) and it was used in each of the sets of interviews to identify themes within the data collected. NVivo was used to arrange these data into ‘clusters’ of similar elements from the data such that an understanding of the interaction between different themes and the organisation could be developed.

3.3.4

C

S

Case studies were specifically used during the addressing of objective 3 and WP 3 of this research project. They are used when a contemporary phenomenon has not been investigated within the context under consideration (Yin, 2009). According to Yin (2009), case study research is recognised as a unique means of examining contemporary events, potentially

offering a mixed research methodology which enables observation of phenomena from multiple perspectives (Dooley, 2002). Bell (1999) advocates the use of the case study method for individual researchers due to its ability to enable one particular aspect of a problem to be studied in depth within a limited time scale.

The case study method was selected for this research project due to its ability to enable theory development through considering the interaction between a phenomenon and its context (Dubois and Gadde, 2002). According to Eisenhardt (1989), developing theory is a central activity in organisational research, but there is also a lack of clarity around the process of actually building theory from cases.

As indicated by figure 3.1, the case study approach was used in the addressing of the research identified within WP 3, and hence paper 4 (appendix I). The use of the case study as a research method is further discussed in appendix E, which was also used to guide the development of the research methodology for WP 3.

3.4

SUMMARY

This chapter has discussed the methodological position of this EngD and presented the research methods used and their limitations. A pragmatic, mixed methods approach to research was selected which encompasses elements of both objectivist and constructivist perspectives and positivist and interpretivist paradigms. This draws research from both qualitative and quantitative approaches; specifically literature reviews, experimental analysis, a case study, interviews and use of action research. Each of these have been aligned to the four specific objectives identified at the outset of this project and thus underpin the research undertaken for this EngD which is presented in the following chapter. Limitations of each of the research methods used in this project will be discussed in chapter 5.7, where all aspects of the research are critically reflected on.

4

THE RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN: DEVELOPING

THE LEARNING FRAMEWORK

4.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the research undertaken over the four-year research project. One of the major requirements of the EngD is the publication of research papers, either included as part of conference proceedings or in suitable journals. During this EngD, two journal papers and three conference papers were published. These are included in appendices F-J. These papers complement the content discussed in this chapter and readers should therefore read each part of this chapter in conjunction with the corresponding paper, as the discussion of the first three work packages is relatively brief here. This chapter presents each objective and their corresponding work packages, as presented in chapter 1.5 and the research undertaken and conclusions obtained.