4.2. SUBSTANCE USAGE
4.2.7. Risk Factors For Substance Abuse
As in the process of engaging in a gang, factors are identified which increase the risk of substance usage. These risk factors will now be discussed.
4.2.7.1. Individual characteristics
When exploring substance usage the role of personal vulnerability cannot be overlooked. Inherent and established coping mechanisms serve as protective mechanisms against substance usage. Individuals who have developed effective coping mechanisms are better equipped to deal with stress and strain. Productive techniques may include distress tolerance
skills such as the use of distraction techniques and minimising distress through engaging in relaxing activities. Lack of distress tolerance techniques can be a risk factor for substance usage (Graham, 2004; Van Wormer & Davis, 2003). This view is further supported by Bottorff (2009) in a study exploring the relief provided by marijuana usage. Respondents reported using marijuana to deal with difficult feelings such as anger, disappointment, fear and anxiety. Respondents appeared to lack effective coping mechanisms to manage uncomfortable feelings, and thus relied on marijuana for relief.
4.2.7.2. Exposure to violence
Kilpatrick et al (2000:2) states that exposure to violence can motivate an individual to seek coping mechanisms in order to avoid distress. These events may cause distress and manifest in the symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Substance usage may be utilised as means of dealing with the distress caused by exposure to violence. There appears to be a positive relationship between trauma severity and alcohol abuse, as individuals experiencing symptoms of PTSD are more vulnerable to the sedative effect of alcohol. Duncan et al (1996) however suggests that victims of physical child abuse are more likely to use drugs such as marijuana, and hard drugs.
4.2.7.3. Family
Familial substance use has been identified as having a modelling affect on adolescents, resulting in an increase in their usage of similar substances (Brook et al, 1990; Kilpatrick et al, 2000). Familial drug usage is said to increase the prevalence of adolescents‟ use of marijuana and hard drugs, whilst familial alcohol abuse increases prevalence of adolescents‟ alcohol and hard drug usage (Kilpatrick et al, 2000:11). The modelling effect of familial drug usage is of a specific nature, as similar substances are adopted by the imitator (Kilpatrick et al, 2000:26).
In families where substance abuse occurs, elevated conflict and weakened relationships often occur (Moore et al, 2010:3). Increased substance usage by the individual who is exposed to
familial drug and alcohol usage has been explained in part by the resulting associated violence and abuse experienced at the hands of intoxicated family members. De La Rosa et al (2007:3) however suggests that high substance abuse rates can be understood by accompanying attitudes, rather than the actual behaviour. Individuals may internalise their families‟ values and norms with regard to the use of substances. This process is suggested to have more credibility in predicting substance abuse. The reason for this is not clear, but may be due to the ability of attitudes to permeate and pervade family life, as opposed to behaviour which can be more inconsistent and less chronic in nature in comparison to values and norms(De La Rosa et al.2007:13).
4.2.7.4. Peer group
The role of peers in substance usage is well documented (Bahr & Hoffman, 2008; Jang, 2002; Cheung & Tse, 2010). Adolescents who have friends who consume alcohol are more likely to use alcohol (Andrews et al, 2002; Henry et al, 2005; Ennet &Bauman, 1993) Associated with relationship with peers is the presence of peer pressure. Peer pressure may involve encouragement and incitement to use substances. The peer group may present a permissive perspective of substance usage and further accept drug usage. The individuals‟ beliefs systems and behaviour may be influenced as a result of interacting with their peer groups. If drug usage is normalised, the individual may challenge and shift his view about drugs.
Popularity and inclusion into the peer group can be both a protective and risk factor. Peer groups may reward and reinforce substance usage. Drug usage may be perceived as a means of becoming part of the group, as drug usage may result in cohesion with the peer group. However, isolation from the peer group can be a risk factor as the interaction with substance abuse fosters ego-development, self esteem, competence and general development. Another risk factor is that of feeling a lack of inclusion as the individual uses substances to deal with feelings of loneliness and exclusion (Cheung & Tse, 2010; 578).
4.2.7.5. Exclusion from systems
Exclusion may be experienced in other social arenas, such as failure to engage with educational institutions. Individuals may be at a higher risk of using substances if their school functioning is substandard, or if they have experienced victimization. Harker et al (2008; 25) states that a correlation exists between drug usage and school dropout.
Individuals who lack cohesion and inclusion within their family are even more at risk of using substances. Cohesion thus fulfils a protective function, reducing the individual‟s likelihood of seeking inclusion in peer groups. Moore et al (2010;2), suggest that individuals who perceive a lack of intimacy with their family are more likely to be influenced by their peers, as peers begin to play a more influential role in their development of norms of values and behaviour. Familial attachment may result in feelings of emotional security, whilst disconnected families fail to meet the individuals‟ needs (Pertraitis et al, 2005; Brook et al, 1990). Disorganised families can lead to unresolved feelings of resentment. These feelings may be as a result of family members being estranged as well as the presence of malfunctioning relationships (Bottorff, 2009; 4).
Economic strain and community violence have been identified as playing a role in predicting substance usage (Hawkins et al, 1992; Pertraitis et al, 1995). Families too have the ability to mediate and mitigate stresses experienced at the hands of neighbourhood and broader social contexts (Szapocznik & Coatsworth, 1999).
Substance usage has been defined and explained through the use of theory and prevalence rates have been presented. When exploring substance usage risk factors can be identified. These risk factors occur within the ecological systems mentioned in the previous chapter. The individual has inherent risk factors such as a dearth of coping mechanisms. Beyond the individual, the family system and peer group present further risk factors. The ecological perspective is concerned with the fit between the individual and various systems (Johnson &
Yanca, 2010:8). It would seem that in the case of substance usage, a lack of congruency between the individual and systems increases the risk of substance usage. Should the individual feel detached from systems, he may be more likely to use substances.
The identified risk factors which increase the probability of using substances sound all too familiar, and are poignantly similar to the risk factors explored in the previous chapter which explored risk factors for engaging in a gang. It becomes clear that substance usage and gang membership share common initiating factors.