RQ2 Do files with blocking bugs have higher complexity than

significantly less scientific publications per capita, and “negligible”

numbers of patents and inventions per capita compared to the global averages of developed nations and even those of developing countries.⁹⁶ It is important to keep in mind, however, that Africa is a whole continent made of many diverse countries in different stages of development. Certain populations may certainly have better access to science and technology due to historical reasons and discrimination;

apartheid in South Africa undeniably gave white residents advantages in education and quality of life. Nevertheless, the statistics presented are still significant as they aggregate data from an incredibly large sample size, reducing overall bias potentially caused by skewed demographics. And, while many African nations have grown significantly on a global economic scale since 2001, the reputation of most African nations is characteristic of the lag between developed and developing economies.

This lag between developed and developing economies, specifically in the case of African nations, can be pinpointed to specific historical reasons. Following centuries of resource depletion and colonization, many African regions and nations gained independence largely in the 1960s, during the Cold War, when technology was being monopolized and innovation was mostly restricted to the

96 Vincent PK. Titanji, "Scientific and Technological Challenges Facing Africa in the Era of Globalization," Journal of the Cameroon Academy of Sciences1, no. 003 (2001). Accessed March 20, 2019. https://sig.ias.edu/files/Titanji001.pdf.

superpowers. Proxy wars broke out in practically every major region of Africa, such as the Congo Crisis in former Zaire, the Ogaden Border War between Ethiopia and Somalia, and several others. These conflicts, though initially grounded in regional issues, often resulted in Africa becoming the bleeding ground for current international issues, with domestic problems becoming secondary. The newly formed nations, particularly in central, southern, and eastern Africa, faced long-lasting political, social and cultural destabilization.

Rebuilding democracies and a functioning economy from the legacy of colonialism and the Cold War as the Western nations raced ahead in developing space tech resulted in these nations’ inability to access the same technology as many of their contemporaries. Further, their necessity to rebuild resulted in a focus on economic development of services, development of government structures and political identities, and ensuring a sense of nationalism and patriotism, especially due to the sometimes arbitrary nature of the boundaries of these new nations. Consequently, early focus and the foundations of many African nations was not in science education or introducing new technology, but rather in marshalling the population and rebuilding.⁹⁷ The historic focus of African nations has not been invested in the technology that has become such a cornerstone to modern global success.

The structure of technological and scientific industries, alongside education, also makes it difficult for African nations to be competitive

97 Ibid.

in these fields. According to UNESCO data from 2018, less than 80%

of children aged 6 to 11 attend school, and less than 60% remain in school at ages 12 to fourteen. Once children are in secondary school, from ages 15 to 17, the enrolment figure drops to less than half, at 40%.⁹⁸ College and higher education is restricted to the wealthy and politically affluent, and there is also a large gender gap present in education, where girls as an aggregate drop out of school or receive less schooling than boys. Further, many scientists and tech leaders are government appointed, tying career progression and reward to inheritance or political favor, rather than competition and quality of innovation or scientific development.⁹⁹ The combination of these two factors prevents African nations from gaining technologically and scientifically competent workers, or even scientific and technical knowledge, while also failing to encourage innovation and development within the existing scientific industries.

This lack of internal systems for education and innovation has also created a reliance on imported technology, rather than implementing systems of manufacturing and creating technological goods and services internally. This inherently creates and furthers the technological and scientific lag, since African nations importing these

98 UNESCO, "Education in Africa." UNESCO UIS. March 15,

2019. Accessed March 20, 2019.

http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/education-africa.

99 Titanji, "Scientific and Technological Challenges Facing Africa in the Era of Globalization."

technologies are always “one step behind”, waiting for goods and services to trickle down to them after they have gained recognition and value in the countries that innovate the goods. Nations are also then restricted in their ability to import and proliferate these technologies by tariffs, trade barriers, economic sanctions, and their own economies. The freedom to use and availability of technology is simply not available at the same level when it is imported as compared to when the technology is being manufactured and distributed within the nation.

Tying into this issue of importing tech is the nature of the technology imported itself. Since the majority of technology introduced is typically Western, platforms do not generally cater to African languages and are instead designed for English. This leads to two separate issues: accessibility of the technology and erosion of native languages. Technology designed for and primarily in English would be inaccessible to those who do not speak or understand English to a sufficient competency. English education, either as a first or non-native language, has historically been restricted to those who have had access to secondary education in previously British-colonized nations.

While this landscape is certainly evolving, a significant majority of the population does not have access to institutions to learn English.

English, due to its association with technology, also becomes associated as a language with economical and human benefits,

resulting in the devaluing of native languages and systems of communication.¹⁰⁰

In fact, this culturally significant issue of undermining native systems of knowledge and communication extends beyond language. What makes modern, Western systems more valuable than traditional ways of knowledge? African cultures, throughout history, have developed techniques of preservation, medicinal systems, astronomical knowledge, etc. without modern scientific education, and ethnic populations sometimes have difficulty in accepting new scientific theories and technology as they feel it is undermining indigenous cultural knowledge and values.¹⁰¹

In terms of resolving the problem of technology gaps in between Africa and the developed world while navigating sociocultural inhibitions and problems, the editorial from the Journal of the Cameroon Academy of Sciences proposes a four point system of improvement. Of these, perhaps the most significant and immediately implementable changes from the governmental level would be policy formation, development of education strategies, and simultaneous advocation of sound cultural practices. The editorial proposes that governments should incentivize and invest in technology and scientific research and initiatives. While this

100 Kabiru Kinyanjui, "Culture, Technology And Sustainable Development in Afric," Asian Perspective17, no. 2 (1993): 269-95.

101Ibid.

may seem counterintuitive based on the issues raised prior, incentivization of research and innovation via funding and programs can train interested candidates in the necessary skills while creating a competitive environment in which innovation can thrive.¹⁰² Shifting career progression away from politics and towards this more laissez faire environment via incentivization and support would allow entrepreneurs and scientists a chance to improve internally generated systems and knowledge. Education strategies to allow competent communication on a global scale are also necessary to compete in the rapidly evolving tech industry.

Further, government education incentives to stay in school as opposed to dropping out via the creation and promotion of these kinds of lucrative tech jobs can also improve literacy rates. Finally, sound cultural practices to prevent loss of native identity and

“westernization” while still adapting to the rapid pace of global economics and absorbing the benefits of technology can help mitigate the devaluation of native practices and languages.

102 Titanji, "Scientific and Technological Challenges Facing Africa in the Era of Globalization."