It is far more important that the voices of the teachers are heard here than that my practitioner voice emerges. Thus it is my researcher voice that is presented here. The teachers’ sequential processes are central to this investigation. Teachers were asked at what stage they preferred to introduce thinking skills (item 10) and to describe some indications of any process they used to achieve this in classroom discussion.
Teachers’ voices
The participants indicated that they most often used specific strategic sequences as they set up questions to facilitate class progress. They indicated links between their own questions and the ensuing discussions and tried to distinguish between a teacher-directed classroom and a student-directed classroom from their individual perspectives.
Staged sequences (quantitative)
An overlap in answers given by teachers trying to indicate which students they targeted for questions about promoting learning, came about because teachers ticked in several ways the list of possible categories of students whom they might consciously wish to target for questioning. Seventeen teachers (17/33) indicated that their questions were initiated as teacher. Seventeen others (17/33) indicated that their process was two-pronged with discussion following a question. Five respondents (5/33) indicated that they actively used groups as a means of handling questions, and to explore topics
Another five teachers (5/33) indicated the use of the jigsaw strategy in group work. Two others stood out (2/33) by highlighting a variety of stimuli as bases for eliciting questions, implying the strategies most suitable for each of these stimuli.
Staged sequences (qualitative)
I found that the respondents emphasised four main concepts: student-centred learning, philosophical questioning, group learning, and using a variety of strategies. To a lesser extent, they were concerned with higher-order thinking, employing a joint approach, and taking account of the range of multiple intelligences existing in their classes. Their comments are summarised in Table 4.18.
TABLE 4.18 STAGED SEQUENCES
COMMENT CONSTRUCT CONCEPT THEME
Kerri: [I use] brain storming techniques and mind-mapping on white board or as group tasks.
Brain storming & mind-mapping
Group learning
Staged sequences Sandy: Jigsaw strategy to facilitate the focus on
significant questions for the groups. Jigsaw strategy Paula: students placed in groups for working then
has question time Question time
Vaughan: I may throw out a question for discussion and see how it goes. Similarly, a student may do the same.
Student and teacher questions Matthew, Australian Expert, commented: The
model that we use allows students to engage in higher-order thinking and this seems to naturally progress from the processes which are in place for a Community of Inquiry.
Community of Inquiry
Higher-order thinking
Paul, in English, German Studies or History: reached for a provocative question;
Provocative questioning
Joint approach Lavenda, in English: ensured there was always a
visual, aural and kinaesthetic component to each activity or lesson; Variety of learning components Multiple Intelligence components Clint, the NZ Expert: Questions are important to
coach students in their thinking – e.g., why do you think this? Ask them to give reasons. However, the questions can be used badly to lead the students to the answer the teacher thinks is best.
Coaching students in thinking
Philosophical questioning
COMMENT CONSTRUCT CONCEPT THEME Matthew, Australian Expert: Addressing and
asking questions is an essential part of any course. In our Communities of Inquiry we get students to each ask a question about the source material and then write these on a white board together with the students’ names. We then address the questions to the group and ask students to abide by the rules associated with the Community of Inquiry.
Community of inquiry
Pietr: Post a question relating to the topic and ask students to stand in a certain place depending on their point of view and discuss; break up and rediscuss.
Defending a position
Connie: Questions providing feedback and for reviewing the previous topic.
Feedback and review Sandy: Jigsaw strategy to facilitate the focus on
significant questions for the groups. Jigsaw strategy Roger, UK Expert: The basic approach to
teaching questioning is to open students’ minds to the nature and importance of philosophical questioning for meaning, reasoning, and value.
Making meaning, reasoning, valuing Pietr: Post a question on the board and select
students in small groups to answer and report back.
Reporting back Roger, UK expert, the only respondent to pinpoint
the actual business of teaching questioning: There is also need to be an element of creative/ radical alternatives, best captured in the overall strategy of asking: Could this thinking/ acting/ product be better?
Teaching questioning
Magda, in Class Music, commented that the development of thinking skills requires a good self-critic;
Being a self-critic
Student- centred learning Clint, the NZ expert: [The] recommended
process is the community of inquiry –start with a problematic situation and students learn to think in various disciplines by engaging with and resolving this problem.
Community of inquiry
Franco: [I am] looking for children’s response
and flow of Constructs. Flow of Constructs
George does not use regular process or structure: I can go either way depending on level of interest.
No regular process or structure June, in Art Theory, relied on question-starters
supported by sequenced instructions;
Question starters by sequenced instructions Jane, in Psychology, Biology and English, also
relied on question starters;
Question starters by sequenced instructions Susan, in Art, Craft Design and Technology,
concentrated on students being encouraged to think divergently.
Thinking divergently Susan, a Design and Technology teacher: always
presents the work as a problem so students are encouraged to think divergently and discuss the suggestions.
Thinking divergently
COMMENT CONSTRUCT CONCEPT THEME Clint, the NZ expert: thought encouraging
questions should be used with an open-attitude where teachers are consciously focusing on the thinking of students, not on whether they have the right answer or not.
Thought- encouraging questions Frank: Visual stimulus to elicit student response. Visual stimuli Hyacinth used a variety of strategies in a mixture
of teacher-directed, and student-directed but teacher-guided process: think/pair/share or other brainstorming strategies; written materials; visual stimuli; a strategy like corners; anecdotes; student questions/teacher questions; thinking keys activity.
Teacher, student and teacher-student processes
Variety of strategies Lavenda uses stimulus prompts like: Can you tell
us…? How do you feel about…? What do you think about…?
Teacher, student and teacher-student processes Samantha, who took a similar approach, listed the
following sequences: teacher guidance and an emphasis on student inquiry; case studies; chalk and talk; videos; texts; comprehension tasks; inquiry-based research; internet.
Teacher, student and teacher-student processes
When summarising, in my researcher’s voice, the overall effect of the details set out in table 4.18, it is important to note that this was the first time that I appreciated in full the divergence between my expectations and the actual documented responses from the teachers. Where there was important and careful stimuli centred on asking questions in different ways, the aim was to focus students’ attention upon their own learning, the philosophical questioning in a perhaps limited form, with team-building for group learning. Teachers managed this by inclusion within their classroom activities and strategies as much variety as they could insert.
As a consequence, I found that in their responses there seemed to be distinctly less emphasis by teachers on the conscious promotion of higher- order thinking skills, and evidence of little inclination to identify the various multiple intelligences (H. Gardner, 1993a) presenting in the way students operated their own learning.