Chapter 4. Methods
4.3. Shows investigated
4.3.2. Shows with subtle motivational outcomes
Most professional science shows contain some motivational aims, however mild.
These may include things like trying to foster positive attitudes towards science,
showing that science is fun, generally mentioning science careers or future science
study, or presenting science in an inspirational light. These aspects are described as
subtle motivational outcomes. Half the shows investigated in this thesis aimed for
subtle motivational outcomes. Elements of a show that convey subtle motivation are
usually incidental, minor parts (e.g. as part of a wrap-up or linked to a demonstration)
that are communicated indirectly rather than blatantly stated. This is not to downplay
the importance of such messages, nor the potential outcomes from them, but to
acknowledge that this sort of show's primary aim is not to motivate audiences towards
specific actions, but to entertain, educate and promote a positive view of science. This
needs to be taken into account when looking at outcomes. Nevertheless, these shows
may have effects on more general motivational dispositions towards science.
Scales used to measure motivational outcomes in shows of this type reflected these
subtle aims; typically they contained less concrete, more general attitudinal measures,
such as asking people if they were more inspired or positive towards science.
4.3.3. Shows with overt motivational outcomes
Shows that primarily aim to motivate people are rare amongst demonstration-based
science shows. While slightly more common in science theatre, plays or presentations
(e.g. on illegal drugs and smoking (Cartmill & Day, 1997; Koster & Baumann, 2005) or
interactive science workshops (Corfield, 2011), I am unaware of demonstration-based
shows with such specific motivational aims external to those studied here - though it
shows to motivate audiences toward specific goals and actions, such as encouraging
behaviours like recycling or condom use. Two shows investigated in this work - on the
subjects of climate change and HIV AIDS - expressly aimed for motivational and
behavioural outcomes. While both incorporated demonstrations, only the show on
climate change could be considered a fully-fledged demonstration-based show.
Scales used to measure outcomes from shows like these are designed specifically
around the show content and aims; they are highly concrete, asking about specific
behavioural intentions (the best predictor of actual behaviour: Ajzen, 1991).
4.3.4. Ensuring balance of researcher-presented and externally-presented shows
Effects due to the researcher are largely unavoidable in social research, especially in
settings where the researcher is actively part of the study stimulus. For this reason, a
mix of researcher-presented/written and externally-presented/written shows was
studied. Shows I presented and wrote consciously used content and presentation
techniques to influence the features under investigation (e.g. making content more
surprising, or highlighting value). Moreover, instruments were designed with detailed
knowledge of the show content and presentation style, meaning I influenced both the
show and its measurement. In itself, this can be advantageous as the show was more
likely to stimulate the responses under study, flesh out relationships, and better
measure them. As audiences were occasionally aware that the presenter was also the
researcher, this may have influenced their responses.
If the sole source of data were researcher-presented/written shows this could be
problematic, as the interaction of show stimulus and measurement may restrict the
also studied. In particular, data presented on the show Burning Issues by Dr Peter
Wothers involved large samples gathered at a show with which I had no connection.
That is, the presenter was unknown to me until data collection, I was unaware of
specific show content, and only vaguely aware of presentation style. This minimised
biases in instrument creation, and I had no influence over the content or presentation
style. Moreover, it minimised biases in analysis that may have been present when
investigating shows I presented. Similarly, I did not present the show on HIV AIDS,
however I did co-write the show and provided ongoing feedback on content and
presentation.
4.3.5. Description of shows investigated
• Subtle motivational shows: Going Ballistics and Booming for Beginners
These two shows followed the same general style and involved a combination of
physics and chemistry content. Various demonstrations were featured, including
discrepant events (as discussed in section 3.1.) that were specifically designed to
enhance surprise, counterintuition and curiosity. Demonstrations typically used
everyday items and frequent efforts were made to show the relevance to everyday
life, that is, to highlight value. I created and presented these shows, hence many of the
variables under study (i.e. value, immediacy, and specific emotions) were considered
in the content and performance of the show. The motivational outcomes aimed for in
these shows are best categorised as subtle. General public audiences (primarily
families) attended the shows in a free-choice, free of charge context. The vast majority
of shows were run as part of larger science-based events (National Science Week and
Burning Issues was presented at the Australian National University (ANU) by Dr Peter
Wothers, a chemistry lecturer with extensive experience in chemistry education based
at the University of Cambridge. The show fitted the general format of a lecture-
demonstration and featured numerous chemistry demonstrations, primarily done with
laboratory equipment, along with a supporting PowerPoint presentation featuring
chemical equations. Content was linked to some degree to everyday contexts, albeit
less directly than other shows studied in this work. Dr Wothers presented in an
upbeat, engaging manner, however the style of the show was somewhat less theatrical
when compared with other shows studied here. Two similar shows were presented,
one to secondary school students who attended as part of teacher-organised free-
attendance excursions, and the other to the general public, who attended in a free-
choice context at no charge. As discussed above, the researcher had no contact with
Dr Wothers nor any input into or detailed knowledge of the show, so creation of
instruments and selection of variables studied was largely independent and informed
by research on other shows.
Burning Issues is best categorised as subtly motivational in that it generally aimed for
less concrete outcomes such as presenting chemistry as exciting, interesting,
accessible and fun. The outcomes were more intended to occur by 'osmosis' than via a
blatant advertisement for chemistry. Indeed, subsequent discussions with ANU
Chemistry staff found that one of their aims was to positively influence peoples'
perceptions of chemistry. Slightly more emphasis was placed on encouraging
chemistry studies during school performances, such as reference to what was learnt in
major part of the school shows, they were introduced by ANU academic staff that
mentioned the university and also held in a chemistry lecture theatre. These aspects
may influence overt motivational outcomes such as intention to study at university.
• Overtly motivational shows: Sustain-Ability! The climate change show
The main focus of this show was on ways people can help address climate change,
both in their everyday lives (e.g. choice of fuels, using renewable energy, etc.) and to a
lesser extent through science and technology (e.g. carbon capture and storage,
hydrogen fuel, etc.). It also included a short introductory section on what climate
change is, the greenhouse effect, the gases involved and their sources, and two of the
potential impacts of climate change. Demonstrations were used throughout to convey
information and model/reinforce target behaviours.
I presented and wrote the show and considered how the motivational features under
study might be incorporated into content and presentation, as well as integrated ideas
from the literature on environmental behaviour. For example, efforts were made to try
and motivate behaviours that were accessible to the audience, such as recycling over
which they had 'perceived behaviour control' (Bamberg & Moser, 2007); to present a
positive as opposed to fear-based message (O'Neill & Nicholson-Cole, 2009); to
provide a science-based rationale for why behaviours helped; and, subtly, to
incorporate some drivers of environmental behaviour such as social norms (Bamberg
& Moser, 2007). Care was taken not to 'preach', be manipulative or present an
unbalanced view. The approach to fostering motivational and behavioural outcomes,
These shows were presented at the University of Zululand Science Centre in Richards
Bay, South Africa. Additional background regarding the science centre, HIV AIDS and
related behaviours is provided in the next section. I co-wrote but did not perform the
show, however I provided ongoing feedback on content and performance. Two people
presented the show, one playing the role of a curious student, the other a 'scientist'
character. Shows were presented by local science centre staff either in English or
isiZulu language, depending on the audience. Prior to this research, the show was
evaluated to ensure it was well received by students. Feedback was gathered from
local HIV AIDS workers/scientists and Zulu science centre staff to ensure the show was
scientifically accurate and culturally appropriate.
The show contained a mix of serious messages and light-hearted moments to engage
students, with motivation of safe HIV AIDS behaviour the dominant theme throughout
the show. Multimedia, props, analogies, narrative and demonstrations were used to
explore the topic, using the HIV acronym in reverse as a structure. The first section
discussed viruses, while the second covered the immune system with reference to HIV.
The third section explored the human aspect and behaviour, presented by 'scanning'
two hypothetical people and discussing safe, unsafe and misconceived behaviours. The
two presenters and audience were then 'shrunk' and travelled in a submarine-like ship
into the hypothetical person whose 'scans' revealed unsafe behaviour. Animations
were used to show the shrinking process, the lifecycle, genetics and cell biology of HIV,
and action of antiretroviral drugs. Demonstrations using models showed the role of
RNA and other aspects of the virus. The show then promoted destigmatising HIV,
discussed other social issues, encouraged testing, and reiterated there is no cure for
HIV AIDS.
The show concluded with a large demonstration where mixing fluids in glasses was
used as an analogue for mixing fluids during sex: the method of HIV infection. 20
volunteers each had a glass of water, one of which had sodium hydroxide (a strong
base) added to it to represent being HIV-positive. Depending on a behavioural
instruction on each glass (i.e. abstain from sex - do not share fluids with anyone),
volunteers either exchanged fluids with everyone, a single partner, or nobody. The fact
that the fluid mixing is analogous to the exchange of bodily fluids that transmits HIV
was stressed. At the end, acid-base indicator was used as an 'HIV test' to show how
the virus had spread depending on behaviour, emphasising the show's primary
message.
4.3.6. Background: HIV sample and study
The following section provides background on HIV AIDS in South Africa and the region
where the study was conducted. The country is facing an HIV epidemic, with a mean
HIV prevalence of 18%, or approximately 5.6 million people as of 2009 (UNAIDS, 2010).
Approximately 850 people die of the disease each day (ibid.). Most new infections
occur in adolescents and young adults, with approximately one third occurring in 15-24
year olds (Rehle et al., 2007; UNAIDS, 2008). In the area close to the science centre
were research was conducted, prevalence rises from 11% of females and 2% of males
in 15-19 year olds, to 40% of females and 30% of males in 20-29 year olds (Welz et al.,
2007). Welz and colleagues described the area as containing "some of the highest
population-based infection rates yet documented worldwide" (ibid., p. 1471), with
thesis is to establish what role science centres and shows may be able to play in
helping address this problem.
To design the show and survey instruments, motivation and behavioural intention
across a range of behaviours needed to be considered. Motivation to engage in HIV-
related behaviours (i.e. behavioural intentions), such as condom use, is a good
example of overt motivation. Unsafe sexual behaviour is the main cause of HIV
infections in South African youth (Eaton, Flisher, & Aarb, 2003; Simbayi, Chauveau, &
Shisana, 2004), hence promotion of sexual abstinence, condom use and single-partner
relationships are common in youth interventions. Broader behaviours associated with
HIV are also important when considering the social context surrounding HIV. They
include discussing HIV with friends or family, being tested for HIV, being aware of one's
HIV status and reducing behaviours that stigmatise HIV. All these aspects were
included in the show and scales to measure motivation (which are discussed generally
in section 4.5.).
Literature suggests demographic differences play a significant role in HIV AIDS in South
Africa, with gender, residential location (rural/urban) and age being significant
variables. Compared to males, females have higher HIV prevalence, are infected
earlier, have lower rates of multiple sexual partnering and poorer HIV knowledge; to a
lesser extent they are less sexually active, older at sexual debut (abstinence) and use
condoms more, although conflicting data exists on these latter three differences
(Akande, 2001; Eaton et al., 2003; Peltzer & Promtussan, 2005; Shisana et al., 2008;
Simbayi et al., 2004; Welz et al., 2007). While there are fewer data on rural/urban
greater sexual activity, and engage in fewer HIV preventative behaviours (Eaton et al.,
2003; A. Harrison, Cleland, Gouws, & Frohlich, 2005; Kaaya et al., 2002; Kelly, 2000;
Peltzer & Promtussan, 2005). As one would expect, sexual behaviour and HIV
prevalence increase with age, however less is known about associated behaviour
except that multiple partnering increases with age (Kaaya et al., 2002).