Social constructivist theory

2.8.1.1 Constructivist and social constructivist theory

To understand social constructivist theory, it is crucial to comprehend the term „learning‟ in relation to constructivist theory. Constructivists‟ refer to learning as “the result of mental construction” (Pritchard, 2014, p.18). In other words, learning occurs during the time new data or information has been built into and inserted into the current construction of one‟s knowledge, skills and comprehension. Constructivists believe that individuals learn best during the time they build their own comprehension or understanding.

2.8.1.2 Piaget

One of the most influential early advocates of the constructivist theory is Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget is renowned as a psychologist of child development and learning. Many teachers or lecturers are introduced to Piaget‟s developmental stage theory (see table 2.9.8). His theory starts with „age–related‟ developmental stages. According to Piaget, children‟s cognitive system is restricted to motor reactions presented in their birth. Children learn to particularise exercises and actions to different incidents or situations. Later on, they utilise those activities and actions to enhance complicated behaviour patterns. At the preoperational stage, children are able to obtain the capability to symbolise their thoughts or ideas as well as to involve mental imagery by the use of language. At the concrete operational stage, Piaget suggests that children start to learn from various aspects, although they are not able to cope with conceptual issues. At the last stage which is „formal operations‟, children are able to think abstractly and logically. Therefore, Piaget claims that this stage is the final stage of intelligent progress or intellectual development. Following Gutterman (2014), Piaget‟s cognitive developmental theory has given a huge impact on other work related to the developmental psychology field. Piaget also presented another work which

discussed how new data is managed by learners of all ages; that is, an explanation of the assimilation and accommodation aspects.

Having viewed the table, it is seen that Piaget looked at “the growing child as a „lone scientist‟” (Pritchard, 2014). That is, a child can expose and explore the surroundings by himself. According to Alanazi (2016), many scholars or educationists have adopted or embraced constructivist theory. However, several critiques have been developed to criticize this theory. Having been proposed by Piaget, the knowledge people interact with is attached to schemas of prior knowledge where learners build knowledge. This knowledge, therefore, is grouped or formed by learners‟ own experiences. Thus, this knowledge construction differs among learners. Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) have developed an argument on constructivist theory. These researchers comment that constructivist theory advocates a teaching style with minimal or unguided instructions for students. Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006, p.6) state that learners can become “lost and frustrated” when they learn with minimal instructions. Another important critique of Piaget‟s work is the lack of social setting and cultural effect which may have an impact on cognitive development. According to McLeod (2018), Piaget places an emphasis or concentration on the universal stages of biological maturation and cognitive development without considering cultural factors and social setting. Alanazi (2016, p.2) adds that another concern or critique of constructivism is the need for learners to link or connect their knowledge to concrete or visible objects; constructivist theory does not support this learning-related need. Taking into account the constructivist theory suggested by Piaget, it can be seen that constructivism remains a powerful force in the field of education as it leads to social constructivist theory. Hence, social constructivist theory has emphasised interactions between learners and others. Pritchard suggests that „others‟ can appear in various forms of the social interaction dimension.

Table 2.17 : Piaget‟s stages of development

Period Age Characteristics of the stage

Sensorimotor 0–2 years Common spontaneous behaviour yields to capability to construct schemas and to make string of behaviour and patterns. After time passes, a child can perceive that there are an existence of objects though they are invisible. Preoperational 2–7 years Children are intrinsically self–centred. They

cannot think about incidents from different perspective. They begin to use symbols representing their ideas. Creativity also starts to emerge.

Concrete operational 7–11 years

Children can think logically regarding physical functions. They are able to

distinguish two identical events even when one has emerged some changes.

Formal operations 11 + years Children can think abstractly and assumably. However, they are restricted by lack of width and depth in knowledge learning.

Source: Adapted from Piaget‟s stages of development as cited in Pritchard (2014, p.20)

2.8.1.3 Social constructivist theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) is the main advocate of social constructivist theory. This Russian psychologist‟s work was completed at the beginning of the twentieth century, however, his work was not accessible in the Western European countries until many years later. Social constructivism has given a main priority to language in the intellectual development process. In other words, people‟s speeches or dialogues are thought of, improved or developed and shared. A contribution to a

recent knowledge, understanding (schemas) and new ideas. A parent or a teacher is often considered and thought to be „a more knowledgeable other‟ because of their experiences of the world. On the other hand, a more knowledgeable other does not need to be only a parent or in a position of „teacher–student‟ relationship. Therefore, learning can take place in informal, casual situations leading by acquaintances, young relatives or companions. Most learning does not need to occur in school; having social interaction with others, can also lead to a type of learning. The exchange of ideas, perspectives and thoughts taking place as part of the contribution of various contexts of a conversation or a discussion between two people will bring a better comprehension of the conversation‟s topic.

To sum up, there are differences between social constructivist and sociocultural theory, though; these two theories were originated from the same proponent–Lev Vygotsky. Social constructivism proposed that knowledge can be individually built and socially mediated. By taking part in a wide range of exercises with other people, learners internalize the results or the outcomes after working with one another. These results made by the learners can also be new knowledge and strategies (Woolfolk, 2005). Sociocultural theory involves and places an emphasis on the development of cooperative dialogues between learners and more knowledgeable others (members) of society. Thus, learners will be able to acquire ways of behaving and thinking; that is, the culture of their community via these interactions. This research has selected „sociocultural theory‟ for its main framework theory because the study significantly involves sociocultural interaction between teachers (Thai, British, American) lecturers and Thai students in the Thai EFL classroom. As the research has sought for the effective cross– cultural communication strategies used by both lecturers and learners, this „sociocultural theory‟ framework is capable of describing how Thai learners as well as their lecturers acquire paths of thinking and behaving while communicating and interacting with each other.