Technological Organization

Lithic technological organization (LTO) is “a strategy that deals with the way lithic technology (the acquisition, production, use/maintenance, reconfiguration, and discard of stone tools) is embedded within the daily lives and adaptive choices and decisions of tool makers and users” (Nelson 1991:57). The sequence from acquisition to discard is guided by the goals of the producer and users of the stone tools (Andrefsky 2008a:4; Schiffer 2004). Although it is difficult to determine socially adaptive choices from the archaeological record, at a more general level it may be possible to infer what gravers were used for, and perhaps in some cases, why they were suitable for a particular task.

4.2.1 Raw Material Acquisition

Many models exist to explain raw material acquisition and focus specifically on strategies employed by Paleo-Indian groups (Ellis 1989; Goodyear 1979; Tankersley

1991). These strategies focus on two main methods for acquiring chert; direct procurement from primary (quarry) or secondary (till chert) chert sources or indirect procurement from trade or exchange (Meltzer 1989). Often, trade and exchange are not differentiated in these models, further; detection of trade or exchange practices among mobile groups such as Paleo-Indians is difficult, as the archaeological traces they leave behind are often ambiguous (Ellis and Spence 1997). Procurement sessions would have been influenced by group mobility, environmental factors, as well as social, economic, and ideological factors (Ellis and Spence 1997). By looking at the chert types present in the artifacts under study, it will be possible to see if they conform to the characteristic EPI acquisition strategies.

4.2.2 Artifact Production

It is important to examine the choices made during technological production. Production process diagrams (that follow all four stages of the tool life history) are one way to examine the variables and choices that are selected for/against by the producer of the artifact (see Appendix A). An artifact’s design consists of a set of technical choices, which result from available resources and the designer’s knowledge (Skibo and Schiffer 2001). The technological needs will guide the production of tools while the social and economic needs (context/structure) will limit the range of effective solutions (Perlès 1992). The selection of technological choices for an artifact design is also influenced by an artifact’s performance in its use/activities throughout its life history. A successful product must perform to an acceptable standard in each interaction or the product will be judged as ineffective (Skibo and Schiffer 2001). Recurrent choices can be analyzed in terms of strategies, allowing comparisons to be made between variables such as raw material availability. These comparisons can in turn identify variables that may have constrained the creation of gravers.

4.2.3 Artifact Use

Use-wear analysis is one way to examine how artifacts were used (tool motion), and against what kind of material (contact material) they were used (Boast 1983; Odell and Odell-Vereecken 1980; Shen 2001). From this knowledge, it may be possible to infer

general, or at times, specific answers to the question of ‘why’ gravers were used for a particular purpose. For example, if a graver shows edge-wear damage indicative of a motion longitudinal to the working edge, and the edge-damage and polish patterns indicate that it was used on a hard animal material, one could infer that the artifact was used for graving bone. By examining the context in which this artifact and others around it were found, it may be possible to infer if this is a common activity at the site, which may then indicate a possible site function, such as a butchering site. The experimental aspect of this thesis will help elucidate the probable uses and contact materials for gravers.

4.2.4 Artifact Maintenance

An artifact is often designed and made in order to function to its maximum capability. When necessary, maintenance must be performed in order to restore the artifact’s ability to perform its intended function. If an artifact has lost its utility for the original purpose for which it was designed, the original utilized edge (employed unit) can be recycled, or another aspect of the artifact may be modified (Schiffer 1972). As

Schiffer (1972) states, sometimes the modification or maintenance of one employed unit is viewed as the manufacturing phase of another. A scraper which is continuously retouched will result in an artifact that is no longer useful for scraping; however, in its new form, it may be adapted for reuse in another activity (Schiffer 1972:158). Through the study of retouch and use-wear, it is possible to examine how gravers were used during their lifetime, and whether they were retouched after use in order for them to achieve maximum utility, or whether it appears that they were discarded before maximum utility was achieved.

4.2.5 Artifact Discard

Discarded, or ‘refuse’ material often consists of artifacts which have broken down or have worn out during use, although whole, useable artifacts are also encountered at archaeological sites. Tools are discarded when they reach a situationally determined threshold of diminished utility. The decision to discard a tool is based on a variety of organizational and situational variables, such as raw material availability, anticipated task

requirements, and scheduling concerns (Odess and Rasic 2007). The kinds and quantities of artifacts that are removed from sites will relate to other variables that are operating at the time of abandonment such as distance to the next site, season of movement, size of emigrating population, etc. (Schiffer 1972:160). The gravers in this study can be examined to see at what stage of manufacture/use they were discarded, and whether or not this can indicate anything about the situation/site in which they were discarded.