THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

All scientific research must be guided by philosophical paradigms which help refine methods of investigation and ensure that prej udices, superstitions and unquestioned assumptions do not impede scientific progress (Craib, 200 1 ). Amongst these paradigms are various logics of social and educational research, the roots of which lie in three dominant twentieth century philosophical traditions which characterise scientific research. These are logical empiricism or positivism (causal); interpretive theories (meaningful); and critical

theory (normative) (Soltis, 1 984: 5). They represent basic belief systems for understanding phenomena, and reflect different assumptions that manifest themselves in distinct methods of social science. Each of these paradigms also has inadequacies which, if utilised on their own would weaken research. However, when the paradigms are combined they offer research the robustness and rigour required of all such work. Postmodernist thinking, which takes a more radical theoretical position, has also made its mark on social and educational research. Lifespan psychology is also considered to be useful for this study.

A discussion of the nature and philosophical assumptions of each paradigm will demonstrate that these traditions are all commensurable, therefore complementary. Consequently, they are used simultaneously in this study. This approach is thus multi­ dimensional, employing both quantitative and qualitative research techniques that involve empirical, interpretive and critical methods, and �re guided by postmodernist thinking and lifespan psychology. Central to the discussion of the validity of social and educational research are various sub-disciplines of philosophy that need to be considered. These are epistemology, ontology, axiology and methodology (Craib, 200 1 ; Guba & Lincoln, 1 994).

An alternative ecological perspective is also considered.

5.3.1 Research Paradigms

Following is a brief outline of the research paradigms and their philosophical assumptions that guide this study:

Logical Empiricism (Positivism)

Logical empiricism or positivism as it is also known, originates from the natural sciences, and is founded on the assumption that the methodological procedures of natural science can be directly applied to the social sciences (Soltis, 1 984). This premise reflects a realist view of the world (Guba & Lincoln, 1 994), which presumes that the world exists externally of the social scientist who is able to make neutral and objective observations (Hughes, 1 990).

There are four essential features of this meta-theory (Fay, 1 983): the first draws on the distinction between discovery and validation, and explains and interprets cause; the second is its belief in a neutral observation language as the proper foundation of knowledge; the third is its value-free ideal of scientific knowledge; and the fourth is its belief in the methodological unity of the sciences.

Interpretive Theories

The interpretive paradigm includes different theoretical perspectives which espouse a relativist or constructivist view of the world. Relativism claims that individuals construct their own versions of 'reality' hence there are mUltiple realities of the world. Interpretivists therefore seek to include the human aspect in science because they believe that observations are continually mediated through the social scientist's particular view of 'reality' (Mishler, 1 979). The social scientist's observations are therefore considered to be inherently biased, value laden and subj ective (Lincoln & Guba, 1 985). The foundation of interpretivist social science is based on subjective observations of an 'indeterminate' world. Its task is to discover the intentions which actors have in doing whatever it is they are doing (Fay, 1 983). For educational research, the interpretive paradigm takes its work to be inquiry into human intersubjective meaning so that we can understand how education initiates us into our culture (Soitis, 1 984).

Critical Theory

Critical theory embraces a form of historical realism which is based on a combination of critical, feminist and post-modem theory (Anderson, 1 989). It rejects positivism and endorses the subjectivity of interpretivism, and focuses on the achievement of emancipation. Critical theorists believe that perception is structured by linguistic categories, mental attitudes and interests of observers, that the categories that define 'truth' reflect different values and interests at different points in history, and that 'reality' must be interpreted, mediated or constructed by conceptual schema (Robinson & Bunsen, 1 995 in Selby, 1 997). A critical examination of social phenomena would liberate people from

sources of domination, repression and subjugation and thus result in more enlightened observations (Carr & Kemmis, 1 983). It stresses the need for inquiry that takes into account the historical-ideological moment we live in and the influence it has on us (Soltis,

1 984).

A critical social science and its research is characterised by three main features: 1 ) It accepts the necessity of the interpretive categories in social science, and is rooted in the felt needs and sufferings of a group of people, and believes that theorists must come to understand these actors from their own point of view; 2) It seeks to uncover those systems of social relationships which determine the actions of individuals and the unanticipated consequences of these actions; 3) It recognises that social theory is interconnected with social practice, and it ties its knowledge claims to the satisfaction of human needs, desires and purposes (Fay, 1 983).

Postmodernist Thinking

Postmodemism carries the implication that the social world has undergone a maj or and dramatic change (Craib, 1 992), and views social 'reality' as an abstraction that is defined by and embodied in discourses (Derrida, 1 976; Foucault, 1 990). Post-modem thought that emphasises discourse, considers reality to exist as a text that can be studied and changed because it is socially constructed. Postmodemism is also about the autonomy of the different areas of social life, and does not develop theories about social 'reality' that treat society as a totality (Craib, 1 992), but strives to create discursive space for the previously silenced minorities, and to elucidate and resist the technologies of repression and representation which dominate the current historical moment. One of the consequences of postmodem thought is multiculturalism.

In postmodernism the personal is political, the political is personal, and social theory must always move from one to the other (Denzin, 1 99 1 ). It is also about the expansion of consciousness, and suggests a deeper understanding of subjectivity. Postmodernists argue that we have accorded science the status of 'truth' and have tended to view as objective

knowledge that which is actually socially constructed and subjective, limiting our behaviours according to what science has declared appropriate (Craib, 1 992; Harraway,

1 993 in Selby, 1 997).

Life-span Psychology

Life-span psychology is based on the principle of cause and effect. According to the orientation of life-span psychology, development is a lifelong process in which no special state of maturity is assumed, and in which the process of psychological growth continues throughout the life span (Bates et al. , 1 980, in Frydenberg, 1 997: 8). It has three major components based on the premises that development is influenced by the context in which the development takes place, that is, school, family and peer group (Bronfenbrenner, 1 977); that interactions between individuals and their context involve a reciprocal influence (Lemer & Spanier, 1 980), and that continuous interactions between the individual and various social contexts are transactional, i.e. the social contexts and individuals may change over time (Sameroff, 1 975). Thus, individual development occurs in the context of social change. This study is guided by this perspective of development as it provides a useful approach to investigating the dynamic interrelationship between youth, the community and the environment.

5.3.2 Guiding Philosophies

To help with being more systematic in investigations, there are some valuable ideas and arguments from philosophy that can be drawn upon (Craib, 200 1 ). These are the four sub­ disciplines of epistemology, ontology, axiology and methodology. A brief discussion of these philosophies that guide this study follows:

Epistemology

Epistemology is about the way in which knowledge is known, and concerns itself with the nature of an explanation (Craib, 1 992). It refers to theories of knowledge as explanatory

constructs for presenting knowledge about what there is in the world. Since it is not possible to be all-knowing, the researcher needs to select a particular framework as an interpretive tool for arriving at some understandings. This needs to take account of the sources of knowledge that have been used to arrive at an interpretation. These could be purely objective and observable in form or subjective and inferential phenomena that cannot be precisely measured. It is this subjective/objective debate which is at the heart of the paradigm shifts that have taken place in social science and educational research (Selby,

1 997).

Ontology

Ontology concerns itself with the nature of the world: what sorts of things exist and what are the different forms of existence. It refers to the materialist, idealist, dualist and agnostic views of what kinds of things there are in the world and whether there is a real world of material objects or simply a world of ideas, or a combination of both, or that the nature of the world as it exists independently of our subjective experience j ust cannot be known (Craib, 200 1 , 1 992). The basic consideration is whether the world is fundamentally a physical place that is limited only to those things that can be observed, or whether there is also a range of unobservable physical entities that consist of metaphysical properties such as a higher power, soul or mind. This, according to Selby ( 1 997) raises fundamental questions about the meaning of 'reality' and the connectivity between that which can be directly observed versus inferences concerning relationships between the physical and the metaphysical aspects of the universe.

Axiology

This concerns the things that are valued by a particular person and the ways in which they develop knowledge and understanding of themselves in relation to others. There are fundamental questions concerning the relationship between facts and values, and whether these can be considered as separate dimensions or whether they are integrally related.

political, religious and economic values to engage in inquiry. Selby ( 1 997) states that it would be unreasonable to believe that research can be carried out at an objective level that is entirely independent of these axiological considerations. Moreover, it would not be desirable (or even valid) for such values to be undeclared. The inter-subjective nature of meaning as well as its personalised, subjective dimension must be taken into account (Soltis, 1 984) therefore the personal values and experiences of the researcher must be made known, as has been done in this thesis.

Methodology

This concerns the procedures that a researcher follows to gather information for analysis. A distinction needs to be made between method as in the information collection process, and methodology as this pertains to the theories and conceptual frameworks that are used to determine the most appropriate method adopted in a study (Selby, 1 997). Whereas traditional empirical research tended to rely on a single method, most contemporary research in the field is multi-dimensional, employing both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Accordingly, this study is multi-dimensional and involves empirical, interpretive and normative methods as suggested by Soltis ( 1 984:5).

Ecological Perspective

This perspective, proposed by Ryba ( 1 989) and built on the 'reference model' suggested by Emihovich and Miller ( 1 988), draws attention to the interaction of the social and environmental aspects in learning. It recommends that both naturalistic and experimental methods of research must be integrated within an overall ecological framework. Accordingly, research must be multi-dimensional, employing both quantitative and qualitative techniques and include a study of the ecological environment within which interactions occur. This study is guided by these recommendations.