Theory development and generalisability

An objective of this research is to identify mechanisms which have led to marketisation within charitable organisations. The study seeks to identify the influencing mechanisms, and the responses, in three organisations to build deeper understanding of the nature of change and its implications for charitable

organisations. Easton, G. (2010), argues that generalisation requires acceptance that not all events and their causes are substantially unique. Explanations focus on

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general causes which take a particular form in particular circumstances. In this way the constituents of causal mechanisms, which have been identified and defended as “invariant under certain transformations”, provide a basis for developing theory beyond the particular case (pp. 126-127). In critical realist terms these invariances can produce “tendencies”, rather than generalisations. Tendencies indicate that causes may produce similar emergent structures. Easton, G. (2010), argues that the aim is to achieve greater “depth” of explanation (p. 119), or comprehensive explanation, to strengthen the understanding of the causal mechanism. Theories, in a critical realist context are tentative and incomplete and, in keeping with Downward and Mearman’s (2010) description of retroduction as a “thought operation” (p. 88), Easton argues that the value of theories are based on “judgemental rationality” where arguments can be made for “claims about reality as we think it is”. Easton, G. (2010) says that by comparing and making judgements about the different arguments we can determine an objective opinion (p. 124). My original concept of research design included one of two possible further stages of data collection. One was a more extensive stage of data gathering designed to identify whether the findings resonated with the wider sector. The second option was to develop the theoretical issues and take them to focus groups drawn from the charitable sector, or more particularly from the organisations involved in the research. This process would have served as a further level of abstraction and may have produced greater illumination of the phenomena. Both were abandoned, however, because of time constraints. Sufficient data was derived from the case study process, which drew on both documentary and interview data, to complete

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the research and even with the wealth of data produced within the case study frame, not all is drawn upon in the analysis.

7.4 Summary

Data collection and analysis from three case studies required a careful focus on key issues to maintain the manageability of the research. However this needed to be conducted in a holistic way to ensure the critical realist ontology was also maintained. Using the indicators of marketisation from the literature review as frames for the initial abstraction of data, I identified key factors in the

marketisation process. By focusing on these key factors, in a reflexive approach which continuously examined the interaction between the issues and the

intransitive structures identified by critical realism, I identified causal mechanisms that illuminate and clarify the marketisation process.

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Part 3

Chapter 8

Twenty Five Years of

Change

All organisations experience change as new people come and go, as they grow in size or as new ideas affect the programme work and organisational approach. However, evidence from the literature on the voluntary sector indicates that there has been a period of intense change in the charitable sector since the 1980s which has produced very similar effects on organisations with diverse characteristics. In this chapter I provide an overview the changes which have been experienced in each of the three organisations identified in Chapter 7. Drawing on both the documentary and interview data I have compiled a synoptic view of the broad changes in each organisation, which I describe in turn, and then draw out

significant aspects of change which are common to all the organisations, and any aspects which may be unique in each. As explained in Chapter 6, I am seeking to maintain confidentiality thus I am unable to cite organisational reports from which I have garnered information.

8.1 Organisation A

The largest organisation selected for this study is a well-established and

recognised charitable organisation. Throughout the research period the national organisation has been a collection of individually incorporated branches whose members, through a representative process, govern the organisation. Organisation A has experienced a decline in membership and volunteer participation during the

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past twenty five years, although there has been a renewed recognition of the value of volunteers to the organisation’s status which has led to establishment of

professional support for their involvement and participation. There has been ongoing restructuring of the organisation’s governance and significant change in the organisation’s operational structures. The latter have grown and become more consolidated, professionally managed and specialised. The organisation has tried to maintain a universal approach to its core programme which has enabled access to anyone who wished to use its services, despite funder interest in targeting those with special need. The organisation has retained its innovative approach to its work by seeking alternative resources, placing greater emphasis on business fundraising and by encouraging local volunteers to respond to local needs.

Nevertheless the organisation is heavily dependent on government funding, which makes it vulnerable to changes in policy and government practice.