2.8 Topic Theory
Topic theory is implemented in the design of ScreenPlay as a way of generating new musical material and affecting the texture/timbre of the existing material in response to topical opposition transformations controlled by the user(s) in order to break routines of form, structure and style in collaborative, improvisatory performance as well as to aid compositional problemsolving. Particularly prevalent in Classical and Romantic music, topic theory is closely related to Structuralist binary opposition models, such as Ferdinand de Saussure's linguistic theory of signifier and signified (Monelle, 2000), through the way in which specific musical identifiers are utilised deliberately by the composer to evoke certain emotional responses and cultural/contextual associations from the audience; these connections being exemplary of metaphorical binary oppositions. In ScreenPlay these metaphorical binary oppositions are used in reverse to verbally describe to the user(s) the audible effects that a variety of topical oppositions made available to them will have on the resultant musical output of the system; while the topical oppositions themselves are also, in fact, binary oppositions. Monelle states that 'There are two semantic levels in song, one verbal, the other wordless. The
wordless level is present in all music, of course. Music is wordless song' (2000, p. 9). Taking the example "horse" in relation to Saussure's signifier/signified theory: 'A musical horse carries a much greater burden of imaginative signification than the simple linguistic term. The musical horse is noble, masculine, adventurous, warlike, speedy' (Monelle, 2006, p. 24); 'the musical horse provides more information than the linguistic horse because it adds the imaginative dimension' (p. 25). In other words, the musical signified has the potential to transmit a far more detailed account of itself than the linguistic signified due to the 'imaginative dimension' (p. 25) and its capacity to evoke descriptive details of itself without the need for additional adjective/verbal discourse as is the case with the literary signifier/signified. 'Music cannot be translated into language; on the contrary, it chastens language by drawing out its limitlessness' (Monelle, 2000, p. 13). Also noted by Monelle, which is perhaps indicative of the reasoning behind the move away from the score as the primary musical artefact in many genres of music in favour of the recording (discussed in the first section of this chapter), is that analysing music within this framework serves to reveal a musical text , which he describes as being able to provide 'a great deal more [information] than merely the score.' (p. 11)
As a result of the difference between linguistic and musical signifieds, Peirce expands the analytical application of the signifier, signified, sign linguistics model to music by extending the definition of the sign to include icon , index and symbol (1940, pp. 102103; pp. 104115).
Iconic signs resemble their object, as a silhouette of a man with a spade may mean "road up" … Symbolic signs depend on learned cultural codes; thus, the word "tree" has nothing in common with a tree, but is understood by a speaker of english to carry this signification … [The] index [is] a sign that signifies by virtue of contiguity or causality, as when a hole in a pane of glass brings to mind the bullet that passed through it and caused it. (Monelle, 2000, pp. 1415)
'musical meaning is "expressive" or related to the "emotions"' (p. 11) but, despite this fact, signification is not dependent on the perception of individual listeners. This argument is compounded through Monelle's belief that 'the musical topic … clearly signifies by ratio facilis … [Umberto Eco's theory, 1976] in which signification is governed by conventional
codes and items of expression are referred to items of content according to learned rules' (p. 16) and echoed by Smalley when discussing spectromorphology:
Spectromorphological thinking is basic and easily understood in principle because it is founded on experience of sounding and nonsounding phenomena outside music, a knowledge everyone has there is a strong extrinsicintrinsic link … [music] must have some shared naturalcultural basis if [it is] to make sense to listeners. (1997, p. 125)
Monelle identifies and discusses at length in The Musical Topic (2006), 'The three great topical genres, hunting, soldiering, and shepherding' (p. ix), in addition to providing multiple examples in different works of certain specific topics (including: the pianto , Dance of Death , Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) and locus amoenus ). Although none of this information has a great deal of relevance to conventional modernday ICMS design it is of importance in relation to the use of topic theory in ScreenPlay particularly the musical characteristics and metaphorical associations of certain specific topics. Monelle also points out that each topic (using the hunt as an example) 'carries a "literal" meaning, together with a cluster of associative meanings'; which is a worthy consideration given the algorithmic implementation of aspects from topic theory in ScreenPlay (p. 3). This view is more in line with that of Agawu (1991) who, although agreeing with Monelle's sentiment discussed in the previous paragraph that topics are reliant upon learned cultural conventions even taking it a step further to suggest that there existed a topical vocabulary shared by both audience and composer during the Classical period that would be exploited by the composer knowing the recognition of musical meaning/association was reliant upon a knowledge of this (p. 33), goes on to state that 'Topics … are points of departure, but never "topical identities." … even their most explicit presentation remains on the allusive level. They are therefore suggestive, but not exhaustive' (p. 34). This point that the association/response evoked from different individuals within the audience cannot be guaranteed due to their own views/experiences/heritage/culture etc., along with the assertion that 'a given topic may assume a variety of forms, depending on the context of its exposition, without losing its identity' (p. 35), makes the application of topic theory in the context of ScreenPlay as a way of generating new musical ideas and breaking routines of form and structure ideal, given that the source material upon which
transformations are applied cannot be predefined within the rules of the transformative algorithm as a result of it being generated by the user(s) of the system.
Also of great relevance in the context of ScreenPlay (at least theoretically) is the assertion of Agawu (1991) and Ratner (1991, p. 615), highlighted by Monelle, that topics 'work best' in Classical music (2006, pp. 78). This may have been true at one time but nowadays it could certainly be argued that the compositional implementation of topics is perhaps best suited to electronic music, due to the vast array of potential spectromorphologies that are able not only to emulate and replicate the sonic characteristics of traditional/acoustic instruments but also to invoke imagery of otherworldly environments/creatures/machines and mechanisms made possible by soundgeneration techniques such as synthesis, sampling and resampling etc.. As well as resonating (in part) with Denis Smalley's idea of technological listening (1997), the aspects of electronic music discussed above also display similarities with Latin authors of the Middle Ages:
[who] learned their craft by studying rhetoric and poetry of the ancient Roman world … [resulting in the] literary topoi adopt[ing] significations from elsewhere and from other times[;] they did not refer to any aspect of the real social world of their time, but rather to an imaginative world. (Monelle, 2006, p. 12; see also Curtius 1948/1953 [English Translation], pp. 183185: "Exotic Fauna and Flora")
Monelle drew two conclusions from this, which both reflect favourably on the application of topic theory in electronic music for the reasons outlined above. 'First, in the case of topics, the signifier and signified are not necessarily contemporary or local to each other … Second, the topical signified may be wholly imaginary, a reflection of cultural fantasies' (2006, pp. 1213). He continues by saying that 'Theorists of the literary and musical topic, therefore, must take care not to assume that signifier and signified are necessarily contemporaneous, or even that the signified was ever part of the social and material world.' (p. 13)
Agawu is predominantly concerned with how topics function within/affect Classical (or, as he refers to it, 'Classic') music, rather than their signification 'not "what does this piece mean?" but, rather, " how does this piece mean?"' (1991, p. 5) This is an ethos much more in line with the aesthetic approach to interactive electronic music composition and performance being explored through the development of ScreenPlay , despite Monelle's
assertion that 'The primary concern of the topic theorist is to give an account of each topic in global terms, showing how it reflects culture and society, not to focus on music alone' (2006, p. 10). Agawu applies this take on topic theory to the analysis of form and structure in Classical music in relation to his beginningmiddleend paradigm, of which he says 'there are specific attitudes to a work's beginning, its middle, and its ending, and that these strategies are an important clue to the dramatic character of Classic music' (1991, p. 51). The suggestion here is that certain topics are more suited to certain sections of Classical music and thus will more often than not appear in these sections. In support of this Agawu cites a number of theorists, including Johann Mattheson who believes that, in order to best represent the rhetorical strength of their musical ideas, composers should 'begin with their strongest arguments, present the weaker ones in the middle, and close with stronger ones again' (Mattheson & Lenneberg, 1958, p. 201).
Although the use of form and structure in ScreenPlay is not relevant in this context given that the musical output of the system is freely formed by the user(s) from the clips they have recorded and the fact that very few potential users would have a theoretical understanding of topic theory and its application to form and structure the initial point made by Agawu with regard to how topics mean taking precedent over what they mean does apply. This is because the user is made aware of the literal meaning of the topical opposition transformations available to them by the labelling provided on the TouchOSC GUI. What is important is how these literal meanings are translated into the musical output of the system so that the user can make an informed decision over the effect a particular transformation will have on the musical output. In essence the application of topic theory in the topictheoryinspired transformative algorithm is a reversal of roles of music and meaning in the traditional sense.
2.9 Breaking of Routine in Collaborative, Improvisatory Performance and Aiding