This remark is surprisingly similar to those of modern empiricists.
In these and other remarks made by Xunzi, we see the rudiments of a naturalized epistemology and philosophy of language, which can be summarized as follows:
A Our sense organs and our mind are part of nature just as natural objects and properties are. They correctly perceive the taxonomies of
natural objects and properties because they are developed
naturally.
B The function of the eye is to perceive various shapes, colors, etc.; the function of the ear is to perceive various tones, pitches, etc.; the function of the mouth is to perceive various tastes; the function of the nose is to perceive various smells and odors; the function of the
body is to perceive pain, itchiness, cold, heat, smoothness, rough ness, etc. No organ can take the place of another to acquire differ ent perceptions proper to the other organ.
C The function of the mind is
to understand.
The mind sorts thevarious data collected through different senses and organizes them into different categories. After comparing the similarities among similar objects and properties, the mind assigns a common denomin ator for things of the same nature. Hence, we have the introduction of names and concepts.
D People agree upon the use of names and concepts, because all people (with normal faculties) have the same perceptions and understanding. 90
Xunzi (Hsiin Tzu)
E Therefore, our language and our understanding correctly and uniquely match the natural world.
This view reinforces the basic presupposition of realism in classical Con fucianism, which Xunzi further supports with a theoretical explanation.
In addition to refuting the anthropocentric view of Heaven, Xunzi also attacks other forms of irrational beliefs or superstitious practices. For instance, he rejects the belief in the existence of ghosts. He says:
Always when people [claim to 1 see ghosts, it is at times when they are aroused and excited, and they make their judgments in moments when their faculties are confused and blinded. At such times they affirm that what exists does not exist, or that what does not exist exists, and then they consider the matter settled.14
Our sense organs usually function accurately such that if we do not perceive ghosts, then ghosts simply do not exist. As for the occasional claims of ghost-sighting, Xunzi's analysis is that those who claim to have seen ghosts must be deluded both in vision and in mind. To Xunzi, death is simply the termination of existence. He says, "Birth is the beginning of man, death his end.,,15 There is no other form of life that we can call the "afterlife." Therefore, there are no ghosts. Xunzi also attacks the common folk practice of physiognomy, the method of foretelling one's fortune or misfortune by studying one's physical ap pearance. He lists many examples of historical figures who are either tall or short, large or small, beautiful or ugly, well-proportioned or ill proportioned to show that there is simply no causal connection between people's accomplishments and their physical appearance. These unjusti fied causal beliefs are the roots of superstitions.
Even though Xunzi is against superstitions, he is not completely against religion. His view on all religious ceremonies and practices is that they serve a "humane function. ,,16 When one performs divination as one does with
Yijing,
the purpose is to stress the gravity of the affair to beundertaken. When the ruler performs a certain religious ritual with respect to Heaven or Earth, the function is to demonstrate how he cares about his people's welfare. Xunzi says:
One performs the rain sacrifice and it rains. Why? I say: There is no special reason why. It is the same as when one does not perform the rain sacrifice and it rains anyway . . . . One performs divination and only then derides on important affairs. But this is not for the sake of getting what one seeks, but rather to give things proper form. Thus, the gentleman
Ancient Chinese Philosophy
looks upon this as proper form, but the common people look upon it as
connecting with spirits. j 7
With regard to the rites of the dead, Xunzi justifies them by saying, "The rites of the dead can be performed only once for each individual, and never again. They are the last occasion upon which the subject may fully express respect for his ruler, the son may express respect for his parents." 18 In other words, even if there are no gods or ghosts, the performance of a certain religious ceremony in worship of gods or in memory of ancestors can demonstrate respect toward nature or ances tors. Such a demonstration is meant to teach the common people the right attitude, which is to have respect for nature and for ancestors. As Wing-tsit Chan puts it:
The influence of supernatural forces over man is completely ruled out by [Xunzi]. What he calls spirits is but cosmic change and evolution. To him, in religious sacrifice, whether there are really spiritual beings to receive them does not matter. The important thing is one's attitude, especially sincerity, in the performance. Thus sacrifices are "ornaments," or refined manifestation of an inner attitude.19
If religious rituals can accomplish this goal, then they are not harmful to human society. As we shall see later in this chapter, Xunzi thinks that these rituals or ceremonies are actually indispensable exactly because of the humanistic function they serve.
In conclusion, Xunzi's notion of Heaven is quite congenial to our modern view of nature. But his view is different from our modern naturalistic view in that it still preserves the moralistic connotation that Confucius and Mencius associate with Heaven. His view on morality is that our conduct should emulate the attributes we assign to Heaven. He says, "The sage purifies his [heavenly] ruler, rectifies his [heavenly] organs, sufficiently provides for his [heavenly] nourishment, follows the [heavenly] government, and nourishes his [heavenly] feelings so as to bring completion the work of [Heaven].,,2o We can perhaps put Xunzi's ethical thesis into this simple slogan: "To be moral is to be in agreement with Heaven."